show a recurrent "on-off" pattern (i.e., present premenstrually but not in the remainder of the cycle). This distinguishes severe PMS from chronic dysphoric states and from cases of premenstrual magnification, in which symptoms are present over the cycle but worsen premenstrually. Women seeking treatment for severe PMS when evaluated carefully often are found to have another psychiatric disorder (e.g., major depression, dysthymia, anxiety) or, in some cases, a medical condition that accounts for their premenstrual complaints. docrine systems (peripheral and central), it is not surprising that a bio-
he biological aspects of women's menstrual life-of menarche, men-T struation, and menopause-are the same in different cultures, but the contexts differ and contribute to a diversity of personal experience. In Western culture, menarche is given little formal recognition; there are no ceremonies, celebratory rituals, or symbols. It is considered a major biological event, but its psychological significance is largely ignored. In contrast, considerable psychological significance is attributed to menstruation and menopause, as is evident from cultural stereotypes about how these processes affect women emotionally. These events also occur in different life stages. Menarche occurs during early adolescence, when the girl is beginning to separate from her family, formulate life goals relating to careers and relationships, and grapple with her sexuality. Menstruation begins in adolescence and spans the adult years, when decisions about marriage, childbearing, caretaking, and career options are potential sources of conflict. Menopause occurs in conjunction with such midlife issues as beginning to be aware of bodily changes that are the first visible signs of aging and confronting the cultural bias favoring youth and devaluing older women. Thus, to understand women's experience of menstrual events, social and psychological contexts must be taken into account.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.