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The purpose of the present systematic review was to examine extant research regarding the role of games used seriously in interventions with individuals with cerebral palsy. Therefore, PubMed, PsyINFO, Web of Science, Scopus, and IEEE databases were used. Search terms included: “serious games” OR “online games” OR “video games” OR “videogame” OR “game based” OR “game” AND “intervention” AND “cerebral palsy.” After the full reading and quality assessment of the papers, 16 studies met the inclusion criteria. The majority of the studies reported high levels of compliance, motivation, and engagement with game-based interventions both at home and at the clinical setting intervention. Regarding the effectiveness of the use of games, the results of the studies show both positive and negative results regarding their effectiveness. The efficacy was reported to motor function (i.e., improvements in the arm function, hand coordination, functional mobility, balance and gait function, postural control, upper-limbs function) and physical activity. Findings of this review suggest that games are used as a complement to conventional therapies and not as a substitute. Practitioners often struggle to get their patients to complete the assigned homework tasks, as patients display low motivation to engage in prescribed exercises. Data of this review indicates the use of games as tools suited to promote patients’ engagement in the therapy and potentiate therapeutic gains.

We investigated the effect of prior investment on choice in pigeons, namely, the sunk cost effect, which is a tendency to continue an endeavor once a prior investment has been made, despite a better option being available. In a concurrent-chains procedure, pigeons chose between left and right keys in the choice phase leading to different work requirements in the outcome phase. Within each session, two components were signaled by red or green keys in the choice phase. Components were identical, except that in red components, the choice was preceded by a prior investment of 20 pecks on the left key, whereas in green components, the investment of 20 pecks was on the right key. Preference for the key with the prior investment was studied in a series of experiments in which we manipulated the absence or presence of the investment (Experiments 1a and 1b) and size of the investment (Experiments 2 and 3). We also investigated whether the bias observed was a result of carryover effects or of the sunk cost effect (Experiment 4). Overall, the results showed that choice was biased toward the alternative associated with the prior investment, consistent with the sunk cost effect, an effect that can be understood in terms of within-trial contrast and the delay-reduction hypothesis.

The sunk cost effect is the bias or tendency to persist in a course of action due to prior investments of effort, money or time. At the time of the only review on the sunk cost effect across species (Arkes & Ayton, 1999), research with nonhuman animals had been ecological in its nature, and the findings about the effect of past investments on current choice were inconclusive. However, in the last decade a new line of experimental laboratory-based research has emerged with the promise of revolutionizing the way we approach the study of the sunk cost effect in nonhumans. In the present review we challenge Arkes and Ayton's conclusion that the sunk cost effect is exclusive to humans, and describe evidence for the sunk cost effect in nonhuman animals. By doing so, we also challenge the current explanations for the sunk cost effect in humans, as they are not applicable to nonhumans. We argue that a unified theory is called for, because different independent variables, in particular, investment amount, have the same influence on the sunk cost effect across species. Finally, we suggest possible psychological mechanisms shared across different species, contrast and depreciation, that could explain the sunk cost effect.

The present experiments investigated the sunk cost error, an apparently irrational tendency to persist with an initial investment, in rats. This issue is of interest because some have argued that nonhuman animals do not commit this error. Two or three fixed-ratio (FR) response requirements were arranged on one lever, and an escape option was arranged on a second lever. The FRs were of different sizes, and escaping was the behavior of interest. Several variables that might influence the decision to persist versus escape were manipulated: the number of trials with different FR schedules in an experimental session (Exps. 1 and 2), effort to escape (Exp. 2), and the size of the larger FR (Exp. 3). The sunk cost error would result in never escaping, and the optimal strategy would be to escape from the larger FR. The main variable that determined persisting versus escaping was the size of the large FR. Rats that escaped from the large FR-apparently optimal behaviordid so at a suboptimal point, and hence committed the sunk cost error.

Aims: The aim of the present study was to examine how executive functions are assessed in children and adolescents with Cerebral Palsy.Method: A systematic literature review was conducted using four bibliographic databases (WebScience, Scopus, PubMed, and Psycinfo), and only studies that evaluated at least one executive function were selected. Both the research and reporting of results were based on Cochrane's recommendations and PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines.Results: The instrument most frequently used was the D-KEFS. All studies point to the existence of impairments in the executive functions among children and adolescents with Cerebral Palsy with an impact on several cognitive and life domains.Interpretation: There is a need to further systematize the research protocols to study the executive functions and their assessment in the intervention context. Findings of this review presented a diversity of tests (e.g., D-KEFS) or tasks (e.g., The inhibitory ability task) used with children with Cerebral Palsy. However, no information was given about adaptations performed to the test/task to meet Cerebral Palsy's specificities. Future research could consider including this information, which is key both to researchers and practitioners. The results of this study have important implications and suggestions for future avenues and guidelines for research and practice.

Sleep Procrastination literature has focused on the behaviors individuals engage in before going to bed (Bedtime Procrastination) but not on the behaviors individuals engage in after going to bed (While-in-Bed Procrastination). The main goal of this study is to explore whether this While-in-Bed procrastination is a novel phenomenon that adds to the Sleep Procrastination literature. The study was conducted online with 400 high school students (Mage = 16.56; 139 males) recruited through personal contacts and social media. The Bedtime procrastination scale was adapted and validated for this sample, whereas the While-in-Bed Procrastination scale was developed for this study. Data show a low correlation (r = 0.158 **) between Bedtime and While-in-Bed Procrastination scales, suggesting that Sleep Procrastination may be composed of the two facets. Additionally, results showed that more Bedtime Procrastination was related to later waking time and later dinnertime hours, whereas more While-in-Bed Procrastination was linked to being male, later desired time to sleep, and earlier dinnertime hour. Findings indicate that solely assessing Bedtime Procrastination as representing the procrastination of Sleep is limited and overlooks a significant part of this behavior. This exploratory study adds a new perspective to the literature by stressing the role of While-in-Bed Procrastination, thus opening new research pathways.