Ethnic/racial minority adolescents face the task of forming an identity in relation to their ethnic/racial group as well as to American society, while also developing awareness of their social status relative to salient social groups. Whereas previous studies have investigated individual social identity dimensions or examined how objective measures of ethnicity/race and socioeconomic status intersect, studies that take a holistic and person-centered approach to considering various configurations of multiple social identities with subjective measures have been less common. The current study addresses these gaps and explores profiles of ethnic/racial identity, American identity, and subjective social status among ethnic/racial minority adolescents. Next, differences in discrimination experiences, mental health and academic outcomes across these profiles were examined. Three distinct identity profiles emerged from the data-"weakly identified," "high ethnic/racial identity moderate American identity," and "moderate ethnic/racial identity and American identity." The "weakly identified" demonstrated the highest levels of past discrimination experiences and depressive symptoms, while the "moderate ethnic/racial identity and American identity" group reported the lowest levels of school engagement. Interpretation of the profiles and associated outcomes and implications are discussed.
OBJECTIVES
To review and meta-analyze existing evidence regarding the impact of school start times (SSTs) on youth sleep and developmental outcomes considering the moderating effects of youth and school characteristics. Scopus, ScienceDirect, JSTOR, Pubmed, PsychInfo, ERIC, Proquest, EBSCO, and Google Scholar were used through 2019 to select studies measuring (1) school start time and (2) sleep or other developmental outcomes. Data from 28 studies and 1 774 509 participants were extracted and analyzed using random-effects models with robust variance estimation.
RESULTS
Later SSTs were associated with better overall developmental outcomes, longer sleep duration, and less negative mood. Specifically, new SSTs between 8:30 and 8:59 were associated with better outcomes than 8:00 to 8:29 start times. Later SSTs were more strongly associated with lower levels of sleepiness for high school (versus middle school) youth, and youth in private (versus public) schools reported better sleep and later wake times with later SSTs. Although this meta-analysis suggests an overall benefit of later SSTs, there was limited research to test outcomes such as sleep hygiene, naps, and behavioral and physical health outcomes.
CONCLUSIONS
There is converging evidence that later SSTs are associated with better overall developmental outcomes, longer sleep duration, and less negative mood. More research needs to consider student and school characteristics to obtain reliable estimates related to possible differences by sex, race, school size, percent free/reduced lunch, and percent minority.
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