Two experiments were carried out to test the hypothesis that failure or defeat increases group cohesion where members feel personally responsible for acting on the basis of group membership. Experiment 1 manipulated success or failure on a cooperative task where subjects (40 male and 40 female undergraduates) experienced high or low choice about doing the group task. Experiment 2 manipulated victory or defeat in intergroup competition under conditions of high or low commitment to the group (the subjects were 64 13‐ and 14‐year‐old schoolgirls). It was predicted and found that negative outcomes produced more cohesiveness than positive outcomes with high choice or high commitment, but less with low choice or low commitment. In addition, counter‐intuitive interaction effects were obtained on measures of self‐esteem and the causal attribution of group performance: in Expt 2 under high commitment, defeat increased cohesion and self‐esteem at the same time that it was attributed to internal factors. It is argued that increased cohesion following failure or defeat is a product of identification with a group to justify and explain behaviour which incurs costs.
Aims: to increase understanding about how student nurses' experiences of supernumerary status which are embedded within the hidden curriculum in clinical practice contribute to the theorypractice gap in nursing. Background: current literature suggests that the hidden curriculum exists in many professional curricula and that it functions to socialise students into professional behaviours and practice. However, in nursing, there is a gap in our understanding of how these socialisation processes have been influenced by supernumerary status and what forms the hidden curriculum might take currently in clinical practice. Design: an ethnographic case study design. Method: data were collected in four sites using fieldwork in clinical practice as well as interviews with students, mentors and key stakeholders and an on-line survey of student bodies in four universities. The findings discussed in this paper are drawn from the qualitative fieldwork and interviews and were analysed thematically. Results: the findings suggest supernumerary status is an important aspect of the hidden curriculum in clinical learning for nursing students; that students are expected by trained staff to work while they learn, and that on registration, they expect and are expected to be competent to work immediately as registered nurses. These expectations are at odds with those of academic nurses and contribute to a theory-practice gap for student nurses. These expectations form part of the hidden curriculum which shapes the clinical context and students have to learn to negotiate their status as supernumerary students in practice to meet these expectations. Negotiation includes resistance to these expectations. Conclusions: Consequently, students have to learn within a disintegrated learning context where opposing values of learning exist. Relevance for clinical practice: to re-integrate student nurses' learning, educators in universities and clinical practice have to understand how the hidden curriculum and expectations around supernumerary status among trained staff affect learning for students. Key words Hidden curriculum Clinical learning Student nurses Mentors Supernumerary status Theory-practice gap IntroductionThe hidden curriculum has been identified in many professional curricula including the health professions (Cook 1991, Davies 1993, Mayson & Hayward 1997, Hafferty 1998 Aled 2007). It is via the hidden curriculum that students are socialised into professional behaviours and practice. These socialisation processes are influenced by the roles of experienced professionals who act as practice teachers, mentors and role models for students. However, in nursing, there is a gap in the profession's understanding of how these socialisation processes have been influenced by supernumerary status (if they have) and what forms the hidden curriculum might take currently in clinical practice. This paper aims to fill that gap using data from a national study to analyse student nurses' experiences of, and trained staff's attitudes to supernum...
Centenarians indicated that life had been worth living and that it felt good to be 100 years of age. We explore the limitations of this study and discuss implications of the findings for those involved with the oldest old.
A method is described whereby cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) may be sampled repeatedly from awake rats over a period of 1 to 10 wk. Stainless steel or Teflon catheters (22-gauge) were implanted in the cisterna magna of anesthetized rats (n = 19) via a midline hole immediately rostral to the interparietal-occipital suture. Several days later almost simultaneous CSF and blood samples from the same air-breathing animals were slowly drawn into glass capillary tubes. pH was determined immediately by electrode and total CO2 by microgasometer. Because sampling via Tygon microbore tubing attached to the implanted catheters allowed part of CSF CO2 content to be lost through the tube wall, stainless steel tube is preferred to make this connection. For mock CSF, total CO2 calculated from pH and PCO2 values was closely comparable to that directly measured by microgasometer. CSF pH, PCO2, and [HCO-3] in five awake rats were found to be similar to those reported in the literature for the briefly anesthetized rat. The sampling procedure did not of itself significantly alter breathing patterns (n = 14). Thus, chronic CSF sampling is feasible in awake rats for purposes of studies of ventilatory control.
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