The influence of an increase in training volume (ITV; February 1989) vs intensity (ITI; February 1990) on performance, catecholamines, energy metabolism and serum lipids was examined in two studies on eight, and nine experienced middle- or long-distance runners; seven participated in both studies. During ITV, mean training volume was doubled from 85.9 km.week-1 (pretrial phase) to 174.6 km within 3 weeks. Some 96%-98% of the training was performed at 67 (SD 8)% of maximal performance. During ITI, speed-endurance, high-speed and interval runs increased within 3 weeks from 9 km.week-1 (pretrial phase) to 22.7 km.week-1 and the total training distance from 61.6 to 84.7 km.week-1. The ITV resulted in stagnation of running velocity at 4 mmol lactate concentration and a decrease in total running distance in the increment test. Heart rate, energy metabolic parameters, nocturnal urinary catecholamine excretion, low density, very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations decreased significantly; the exercise-related catecholamine plasma concentrations increased at an identical exercise intensity. The ITI produced an improvement in running velocity at 4 mmol lactate concentration and in total running distance in the increment test; heart rate, energy metabolic parameters, nocturnal catecholamine excretion, and serum lipids remained nearly constant, and the exercise-related plasma catecholamine concentrations decreased at an identical exercise intensity. The ITV-related changes in metabolism and catecholamines may have indicated an exhaustion syndrome in the majority of the athletes examined but this hypothesis has to be proven by future experimental studies.

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After more than 25 years of research of altitude training (AT) there is no consensus regarding either the training programme at altitude or the effects of AT on performance at sea level. Based on a review of the research work on AT, we investigated combined base training and interval training at moderate altitude and compared immediate and delayed effects on sea level performance with those following similar sea level training (SLT). The altitude group (AG, 10 male amateur runners) trained at 2315 m (natural altitude) and the sea level group (SLG, 12 male amateur runners) at 187 m. Both groups performed 7 days of base training (running on a trail) lasting between 60 and 90 min a day and 5 days of interval training (speed and hill runs) for between 10 and 45 min a day. Incremental exercise tests were performed 1 week before (t1), 3 days after (t2) and 16 days after (t3) the 12-day main training period. Within AG, exercise performance improved from t1 to t2 by 8% (P < 0.05) and from t2 to t3 by 8% (P < 0.05). Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) increased from t2 to t3 by 10% (P < 0.05). Within SLG exercise performance increased from t2 to t3 by 8% (P < 0.05). At t3, relative and absolute VO2max in AG were significantly higher in comparison with SLG (P = 0.005 and P = 0.046 respectively). The improved performance 3 days after AT may be explained in part by an increased oxygen uptake at submaximal exercise intensities without a change in VO2max. Further enhancement in performance 2 weeks after AT, however, seems to have been due to the clearly enhanced VO2max. Progressive cardiovascular adjustments might have contributed primarily to the time-dependent improvements observed after AT, possibly by an enhanced stroke volume overcompensating the reduced heart rates during submaximal exercise. In conclusion, our findings would suggest that training at a moderate natural altitude improves performance at sea level more than SLT. Combining base and interval training with regulation of intensity by training at constant heart rates during acclimatization at altitude would seem to be a successful training regimen for amateur runners. Most beneficial effects became apparent during the subsequent SLT around 2 weeks after return from altitude. Therefore, we are convinced that AT should be reconsidered as a potent tool for enhancing aerobic capacity, at least in non-elite athletes.

In a retrospective study in elite biathletes we investigated to what extent spiroergometric data, determinations of the anaerobic threshold and measurements of heart volume were related to former training programs, respectively subsequent achievements in competition. Between 1980 and 1987 top athletes of international (team A) as well as of national class (team B) underwent maximal graded treadmill tests in the laboratory. Twice a year maximal oxygen uptake (ml/kg.bw/min), maximal treadmill velocity (km/h), oxygen uptake and treadmill velocity at the anaerobic threshold (defined at 4 mmol/l lactate) were measured during maximal exercise, and absolute and relative heart-volume (heart volume/kg.bw) were evaluated at rest. Evaluation of ergospirometric and heart volume data revealed some relationship to various forms and intensities of training. Observations of team A athletes showed that up to 1985 there was a fairly good relationship between ergospirometry findings and achievements in competition during the following season. For heart volume, however, no such relationship could be found. The skating method introduced in cross-country skiing in 1985 gave more importance to the running technique than to absolute endurance capacity. From this time on the predictive value of laboratory tests clearly diminished.

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