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The objective of this work was to evaluate the microbicidal effect of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on potentially toxigenic fungi affecting cocoa (Theobroma cacao) crops. These fungi, isolated from diseased cocoa pods, were characterized phenotypically and genotypically. The microbicidal effect was assessed by measuring radial mycelial growth, in synthetic culture media, and at different AgNP concentrations in plant tissues. The inhibition effect was monitored in Petri dishes, and changes in fungal structures were observed through scanning electron microscopy. Two potentially toxigenic fungi were highly prevalent: Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium solani. The inhibition assays, performed in liquid and solid synthetic culture media, showed that AgNPs did not significantly affect the growth of these fungi, even at the highest concentration (100 ppm). By contrast, they showed a positive inhibitory effect in plant tissues, especially in the cortex, when infected with A. flavus, in which an 80 ppm dose completely inhibited fungal growth. However, once fungi have managed to penetrate inside the pods, their growth is unavoidable, and AgNP effect is reduced. On F. solani, the studied nanomaterial only induced some texture and pigmentation changes. The microbicidal effect of chemically synthesized silver nanoparticles is greater in plant tissues than in culture media.

Life Cycle Assessment methodology has been applied to estimate diverse environmental impacts of different usage alternatives for worn-out tires at the end of their useful life in a case study at the Department of Valle del Cauca, Colombia. Different real scenarios were compared, which allowed for the assessment of the best environmental option for the management of worn-out tires. A method developed in the Institute of Environmental Sciences at University of Leiden, better known as CML-2001, was used to calculate the environmental impact indicators. The results show that the incineration of whole tires in cement plants, and the activities of grinding and floor manufacturing from granulated rubber, exhibited the best indicators, especially in terms of environmental load avoidance through the recovery of materials. Finally, the categories of depletion of the ozone layer, acidification, global warming potential, depletion of abiotic resources, and photochemical ozone formation revealed that the strongest environmental impacts are associated with retreading and the production of multipart asphalt. This is due to the use of synthetic rubber in the former alternative, and of liquid asphalt, gravel, and diesel consumption in the latter.

Abstract:Cocoa is an important commercial crop in the tropics, and estimating the water footprint to target areas of improvement is a worthwhile effort. The main goal of this paper was to assess the regional green and blue water footprints (WF) of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) production in the department of Norte de Santander, Colombia. Water footprint assessment was based on the Water Footprint Assessment Manual. The results show that the green water footprint was about 13,189 m 3 /ton, and the blue water footprint was 5687 m 3 /ton. The WF proposed method can be a good approximation for the uses of water for different crops, but weather conditions and hydrological modeling must be considered in extreme conditions, which would permit a much more detailed analysis for a region. This study allowed us to provide data on the cocoa water footprint, principally concentrating on elevated grain production in the department of Norte de Santander, Colombia. In addition, some of these results may positively contribute to water resource management improvement, especially regarding food security and water scarcity, both at the local and national levels. Therefore, the cocoa production process was analyzed from agronomic practices in settled crops, through the primary processing of the grain, to the procedures of grain selection and packaging. Thus, taking into consideration that most cocoa crops produced in Colombia are not irrigated, it is possible to implement productivity enhancement programs.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is a tropical tree, seriously affected by fungal diseases. To control several pathogens, biological methods are prescribed since they are friendly to the environment and easy to use. The main objective of this study was to assess the biocontrol effect of two native strains, Trichoderma viride and Botryosphaeria quercum, on phytopathogens such as Phytophthora palmivora and Moniliophtora roreri, causal agents of black pod and frosty pod rot diseases, respectively. In addition, biocontrolers were faced on potential mycotoxigenic fungi such as Aspergills flavus and Fusarium solani, which are very common on cocoa. The Bio-Control Index (BCI) was calculated to determine the in vitro biocontrol effect against the biocontrole contra quatro fitopatógenos. Os resultados indicaram que o melhor agente de controle biológico de fitopatogenos era B. quercum, que mostra 82,3% de BCI e 80,7%, 63,3% e 59,7% para cad a um dos fitopatógenos testados, respectivamente. A competição por substrato foi a estratégia utilizada no controle biológico. As estirpes, provenientes do Departamento de Santander e Santander Norte apresentaram a maior inibição percentual média. Este estudo é um inicial para sobre o poten c ial endófito e antagonística de fungos, capazes de colonizar as especificamente bagas de cacau e solo. Assim, estas estirpes podem ser indicadas uma alternativa eficiente contra fitopatógenos de cacau importantes. Palavras-chave: Cacau, patógenos,cogumelos, biocontroleCocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is a tropical American tree flowering all year long and bearing a fruit known as pod. Colombia is the ninth producer in the world and the third one in Latin America, after Brazil and Ecuador. Estimated projections indicate that by 2021 Colombia might produce 285,600 Mg cocoa, as cocoa tree plantations are expected to reach over 230,000 ha (11); however, 50% to 90% cocoa production is affected by fungal diseases (2,4). The most prevailing infections are frosty pod rot (caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri) and black pod (the etiological agent of which is Phytophthora sp.), both causing cocoa crop losses of up to 100% (15). In addition, there are secondary infections caused by phytopathogens like Aspergillus and Fusarium that attack opportunistically as cocoa deteriorates, thus accelerating pod degradation and leaving traces of mycotoxins (3).To reduce the effects of fungal phytopathogens, cocoa growers apply good cropping practices, sometimes combined with the use of fungicides. The first method is easy to apply but labor demanding and is only economically viable if the cocoa price in the market is high (8). In the case of fungicides, they certainly protect the plant

There is currently great concern about the processes that directly or indirectly contribute to the potential for global warming, such as stratospheric ozone depletion or acidification. In this context, and provided that treated water is a basic public utility in urban centers around the world as well as in some rural areas, its impact on the environment is of great interest. Therefore, this study applied the environmental methodology of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental loads of four potable water treatment plants (PWTPs) located in northeastern Colombia following the international guidelines delineated in ISO 14040. The different stages of the drinking water process were thoroughly assessed, from the catchment point through pumping to the distribution network. The functional unit was defined as 1 m 3 of drinking water produced at the plant. The data were analyzed through the database Ecoinvent v.3.01, and modeled and processed in the software LCA-Data Manager. The results showed that in plants PLA-CA and PLA-PO, the flocculation process has the highest environmental load, which is mostly attributable to the coagulant agent, with a range between 47-73% of the total impact. In plants PLA-TON and PLA-BOS, electricity consumption was identified as the greatest impact source, with percentages ranging from 67 to 85%. Treatment processes and techniques, bioclimatic conditions and culturally driven consumption behavior varied from region to region. Furthermore, changes in treatment processes and techniques are likely to affect the environment during all stages of a plant's operational cycle.Keywords: climate change, environmental impact, treated water. Avaliação do ciclo de vida de quatro estações de tratamento de água potável localizado no nordeste da Colômbia RESUMO Atualmente, existe uma grande preocupação com os processos que direta ou indiretamente contribuem para as alterações climáticas, destruição da camada de ozônio ou acidificação, entre outros impactos ambientais. Neste contexto, e desde que a água tratada constitui um serviço público básico em centros urbanos de todo o mundo e em algumas áreas rurais, o impacto de suas emissões no meio ambiente tem sido considerado de grande interesse. Assim, na pesquisa atual foi aplicada a metodologia ambiental de avaliação do ciclo da vida (LCA) para avaliar os impactos ambientais de quatro estações de tratamento de água potável (PWTPs), localizadas no nordeste da Colômbia seguindo diretrizes internacionais da ISO 14040. As diferentes etapas do processo de purificação a partir do ponto de captação por meio de bombeamento para a rede de distribuição foram completamente avaliadas. A unidade funcional foi definida como 1 m 3 de água potável produzida na fábrica. Os dados foram analisados com base no banco de dados Ecoinvent v.3.01 e processados no software LCAData Manager. Os resultados possibilitaram determinar que em plantas PLA-CA e PLA -POR, o processo de floculação tem a maior carga ambiental, o que é principalmente atribuível ao agente ...

ABSTRACT:Cocoa is an important commercial crop in the tropics; and estimating the carbon emissions in the producing-areas is a worthwhile effort. The main goal of the current paper was to evaluate the carbon footprint (CF) per kilogram of Colombian cocoa bean produced under conventional and agroforestry managements, following the methods proposed by PAS 2050. In this research, we compared our results to other worldwide researches, showing an overview of the current limitations and challenges involving the CF researches. Our results showed that all calculated environmental burdens were lower for the conventional management. In the agroforestry practice, composting of cocoa pod husks contributed with approximately 34.00E+00 g methane and 2.55E+00 g nitrous oxide emissions per kilogram of cocoa grain produced. Therefore, such practice could reduce CF by 6.00E+00 kg CO 2 Eq kg -1 , which is certainly a significant amount. These cocoa residues left on the ground have a strong impact on CF of both studied managements due to the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, which represents more than 85% of emissions. We concluded that both evaluated production processes can emit environmental burdens at the same magnitude. Definitely, there is a widespread need to improve cocoa production system by changing old and less productive plants to the so called clones to ensure cocoa yield and quality worldwide. KEYWORDS:Carbon footprint, climate changes, global warming potential, Theobroma cacao L. PEGADA DE CARBONO DA PRODUÇÃO DE CACAU COLOMBIANORESUMO: O cacau é uma importante cultura comercial nos trópicos e estimar as emissões de carbono para áreas de melhoria de segmentação é um esforço que vale a pena. Portanto, o principal objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a pegada de carbono (CF) de grãos de cacau colombianos por kg utilizando a metodologia por PAS 2050. Nesta pesquisa, discutiram-se os resultados e apresentou-se uma visão geral das limitações percebidas e dos desafios atuais de pesquisa CF. Os resultados mostram que todas as cargas foram calculadas e encontram-se rebaixadas para a tecnologia convencional. A compostagem contribuiu com aproximadamente 34.00E + 00 g de metano e 2.55E + 00 g de óxido nitroso por quilograma de cacau. Assim, esta prática é capaz de reduzir o CF por 6.00E + 00 kg CO2 eq kg-1, que é certamente significativo. Resíduos deixados no solo, como é o caso da casca de cacau, têm um forte impacto sobre a CF de ambas as tecnologias estudadas devido à decomposição anaeróbia da matéria orgânica, o que representa mais de 85% das emissões. Pode-se concluir que o processo de produção selecionado pode emitir cargas ambientais com a mesma ordem de grandeza, utilizando-se das duas abordagens tecnológicas diferentes, vulgarmente utilizadas neste campo. Então, definitivamente, não é uma necessidade generalizada para promover a modernização da produção de cacau por uma transição em que as velhas e menos produtivas plantas são substituídas pelos chamados clones, a fim de garantir a produtividade do cacau m...

A B S T R A C TThe main objective of the present research was to calculate the water footprint of the Colombian cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) production. The evaluation of crop water requirement and irrigation requirement were based on climate, soil and crop conditions in the country. The water requirement estimation was based on data from six municipalities selected for their representativeness of the highest yield, productivity and commercial dynamics of the country. . Water use per crop unit can be influenced not only by agro-meteorological conditions, but also by the level of production. Therefore, a region with a low water footprint value for a specific crop usually has a favorable climatic condition. Crop evapotranspiration was found to be relatively low, and the highest yields were obtained in association with more productive cropping levels. Given the complexity of a hydrological phenomenon like crop evapotranspiration, the magnitude of these differences may be considered to be small. Avaliação de pegada hídrica da produção de cacau colombiano R E S U M O O objetivo principal da presente pesquisa é avaliar a pegada hídrica da produção do cacau Colombiano (Theobroma cacao L.). A exigência hídrica da cultura, tanto quanto a de irrigação, foi avaliada com base nas condições de clima, solo e da cultura no país. A estimativa da necessidade de água foi baseada em dados de seis municípios selecionados pela representatividade dos seus maiores níveis de rendimento, produtividade e dinâmica comercial do Brasil. De acordo com os resultados a pegada hídrica atingiu 17,100 m 3 t -1 . A nível de província, o maior recorde para este parâmetro foi observado em Tolima com 23,239 m 3 t -1 enquanto Huila registrou o nível mais baixo, com 13,475 m 3 t -1. O consumo de água por unidade de cultura pode ser influenciado não só pelas condições agrometeorológicas, mas também pelo nível de produção; portanto, regiões com baixos valores de pegada hídrica para uma cultura específica geralmente têm condição climática favorável. A evapotranspiração é relativamente baixa e os maiores rendimentos foram obtidos na agricultura com maiores níveis de produção; em razão da complexidade de um fenômeno hidrológico, como a evapotranspiração de uma cultura, a magnitude dessas diferenças pode ser considerada pequena.