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Climate change is one of the most important environmental issues facing the world today. The impact of climate change is a reality and it cuts across all climate-sensitive sectors including the Agriculture sector. It is well documented by several scientists, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and other experts that climate change threatens sustainable economic development and the totality of human existence. This study will enable small scale maize farmers in Mpumalanga province to understand the challenges and the threat posed by climate variability and climate change. The study was conducted in Nkangala District, Mpumalanga province. Mpumalanga province remains the largest production region for forestry and the majority of the people living in Mpumalanga are farmers and they have contributed immensely to promote food security. However, due to the threat by climate variability and change, sectors such as the Agriculture, Water etc are experiencing the following pattern: (a) Putting livelihoods and food production at serious risks due to extreme climatic events, climate variability and change. It was noted that there is a need for climate change awareness across the agriculture sector. Currently, there is enough evidence that shows that climate change is affecting different elements of agriculture such as crops and livestock. Random sampling technique was used to select two hundred and fifty farmers to be interviewed. The questionnaires were administrated to household head farmers and included matters relating to household general information, climate change awareness, land characteristics, observation on climate change and agronomic practices including maize production. Data was analysed using the statistical for social sciences (SPSS version 20). Descriptive statistics was used to describe data and Univariate regression analysis was conducted to demonstrate the relationship and association of variables. It was noted that the majority of farmers in this province need capacity building and also climate change awareness initiatives which would assist these farmers to build the adaptive capacity, increase resilience and reduce vulnerability. By coming up with these kind of interventions it is believed that some of these farmers would be able to change their farming methods, diversify their cropping systems and also introduce drought tolerant crops in order for them to have good yields and also be able to generate good income.

Adaptation to climate change varies according to regions, it could be effective in relation to people and their locations. Adaptation to climate change in sub-Saharan Africa is different from that of developed countries, as resources are limited. This study was conducted in Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality in North West Province of South Africa. This study examined the determinants of climate change adaptation strategies among rural farmers' households in the study area. A total number of 346 questionnaires were administered to the farmers in the district using the stratified random sampling technique. Data were captured and analyzed using SPSS and EVIEWS software. Multicollinearity analysis was first performed to remove highly correlated variables from the model followed by the use of Tobit regression analysis. The results of the analysis indicated that farm size (p < 0.01), gender (p < 0.01), type of farm (p < 0.05), farm ownership (p < 0.05), land acquisition (p < 0.01), source of climate change information (p < 0.01), support received on climate change (p < 0.1), and adaptation barrier were statistically significant (p < 0.01) and influenced climate change adaptation strategies. The study concluded that to support climate change adaptation among the rural farmers in the study area, considerable attention should be paid to understanding the socio-economic characteristics of the rural households, source of information and support received on climate change.

Zimbabwe has recently experienced a considerable shift towards the production of more cash crops, such as tobacco, at the expense of food crops. Although cash cropping has been associated with increased income, the question is whether the income gained from cash crops would be enough to provide the food needs of farming households. This research was conducted to analyse the impact of cash crops on household food security. A cross-sectional survey consisting of 281 randomly selected smallholder farmers in Shamva District was used for primary data collection. Data were analysed using the Tobit regression model and Propensity score matching (PSM). The household dietary diversity score (HDDS) was used to measure food security. The PSM results showed a positive impact of cash crop production on the HDDS. This could be attributed to the income effect of cash cropping. Furthermore, Tobit regression results showed that cash crop production (p < 0.1), non-farm income (p < 0.01), total arable land (p < 0.05) and access to draft power (p < 0.05) positively influenced household food security. Household size negatively impacted food security (p < 0.05). While the results from this study suggest the need to promote cash crop production, it should not be regarded as the panacea for addressing food insecurity. There is a need for further research to derive optimum combinations of cash and food crops in the crop mixture for smallholder farmers to achieve food security. Furthermore, opportunities for off-farm livelihood options should be developed, since non-farm income had a positive effect on food security.

Background: Climate change negatively impacted agricultural food production. Amidst the means of adjustment is the use of adaptation strategies to combat the detrimental effect. In order to promote zero hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and encourage sustainable agriculture, which were listed under the second goal of the Sustainable Development Goals, then, farmers must necessarily have recourse to controlling measures. Consequently, climate change adaptation strategy was identified as one of the key approaches to achieving the catalogue itemised under the second goal. Hence this study aimed to determine the synergy between climate change adaptation strategy and smallholder farmers' food security status in South Africa, in addition to exploring factors that influenced the duo. A cross-sectional survey was conducted where 346 maize farmers in Ngaka Modiri Molema District of the North West Province, South Africa were interviewed. Data were analysed using STATA software, while two-stage

Rural livelihoods in most developing countries are threatened by climate-related risks such as drought, flood, heat waves, storms, and so on. Although farmers have adopted several adaptation strategies, they have proven less effective than hoped. Hence, index-based livestock insurance, an innovation that significantly assists farmers to acclimatise to climate-related risks, has been proposed; and its adaptability has attracted a notable increase in other African countries. However, the success of its adoption is dependent on the inclination of the farmers to pay for the service. Accordingly, this study investigates their willingness to pay for index-based livestock insurance and its determinants, and the factors influencing the total livestock units to be insured in the North West province of South Africa. Cross-sectional data were obtained from 277 cattle farmers, drawn randomly from the study area. The contingent valuation method was applied to determine the farmers’ willingness to pay; and only 10.8% were willing to pay. Simultaneously, the Heckit sample selection model was used to analyse the data to identify the factors responsible for farmers’ willingness to pay and total livestock units to insure. The findings revealed that farmer’s experience, age, education, marital status, awareness of insurance and household dependents were statistically significant, and influenced the maximum price R600 ($42, max willingness to pay, WTP) of those who accepted index-based livestock insurance. However, by implication, the study concluded that to adopt index-based livestock insurance in the study area among the livestock farmers, there should be policies to cater for the aforementioned factors.

Lack of adequate vegetable consumption may contribute to micronutrient deficiency especially in developing countries where low intake of nutrient-dense animal products is common. Despite growing evidence that vegetable consumption is of great importance, only about 25.6% South Africans consume sufficient vegetables per day. This research was carried out to investigate the vegetable consumption patterns of urban farmers in Emfuleni Local Municipality, South Africa. The objectives were to determine reasons why urban farmers consume vegetables, vegetable intake patterns in a 24-hour recall,and factors influencing vegetable consumption patterns. The study was conducted in six (6)large townships of Emfuleni Local Municipality using a quantitative research approach and survey design. A sample of 254 urban farmers were randomly selected from 30 urban community gardens with a population of 418 farmers. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a semi-structured survey questionnaire. Quantitative data were analysed using Statistical Program for the Social Sciences Version 23. Descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) and ordered logistic regression model were explored to analyse the data. The results revealed that 96.1% and 93.3% of farmers in urban community gardens consumed vegetables as a relish and salad,respectively. Vegetables were mostly consumed during dinner because most respondents were physically present in the community gardens during the day. The results of the factors influencing vegetable consumption patterns showed that out of 10 independent variables chosen, only three (age group, level of education,and main source of income)were positive and statistically significant. The study, therefore, recommends that farmers should include vegetables in all three of their daily meals (breakfast, lunch,and dinner). Education in the form of training should be provided to the urban farmers to create awareness in the community about the importance of vegetable gardens and the consumption of vegetables across all age groups.