Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the etiological agent of Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) and primary effusion B-cell lymphoma. KSHV induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) early during infection of human dermal microvascular endothelial (HMVEC-d) cells that are critical for virus entry. One of the downstream targets of ROS is nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a transcription factor with important anti-oxidative functions. Here, we show that KS skin lesions have high Nrf2 activity compared to healthy skin tissue. Within 30 minutes of de novo KSHV infection of HMVEC-d cells, we observed Nrf2 activation through ROS-mediated dissociation from its inhibitor Keap1, Ser-40 phosphorylation, and subsequent nuclear translocation. KSHV binding and consequent signaling through Src, PI3-K and PKC-ζ were also important for Nrf2 stability, phosphorylation and transcriptional activity. Although Nrf2 was dispensable for ROS homeostasis, it was essential for the induction of COX-2, VEGF-A, VEGF-D, Bcl-2, NQO1, GCS, HO1, TKT, TALDO and G6PD gene expression in KSHV-infected HMVEC-d cells. The COX-2 product PGE2 induced Nrf2 activity through paracrine and autocrine signaling, creating a feed-forward loop between COX-2 and Nrf2. vFLIP, a product of KSHV latent gene ORF71, induced Nrf2 and its target genes NQO1 and HO1. Activated Nrf2 colocalized with the KSHV genome as well as with the latency protein LANA-1. Nrf2 knockdown enhanced ORF73 expression while reducing ORF50 and other lytic gene expression without affecting KSHV entry or genome nuclear delivery. Collectively, these studies for the first time demonstrate that during de novo infection, KSHV induces Nrf2 through intricate mechanisms involving multiple signal molecules, which is important for its ability to manipulate host and viral genes, creating a microenvironment conducive to KSHV infection. Thus, Nrf2 is a potential attractive target to intervene in KSHV infection and the associated maladies.

IMPORTANCELike all herpesviruses, latency is an integral part of the life cycle of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), an etiological agent for many human cancers. Herpesviruses utilize viral and host factors to successfully evade the host immune system to maintain latency. Reactivation is a complex event where the latent episomal viral genome springs back to active transcription of lytic cycle genes. Our studies reveal that KSHV has evolved to utilize the innate immune sensor IFI16 to keep lytic cycle transcription in dormancy. We demonstrate that IFI16 binds to the lytic gene promoter, acts as a transcriptional repressor, and thereby helps to maintain latency. We also discovered that during the late stage of lytic replication, KSHV selectively degrades IFI16, thus relieving transcriptional repression. This is the first report to demonstrate the role of IFI16 in latency maintenance of a herpesvirus, and further understanding will lead to the development of strategies to eliminate latent infection. The human gammaherpesvirus Kaposi's sarcoma (KS)-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), also referred to as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), is an oncogenic virus etiologically associated with KS, primary effusion B-cell lymphoma (PEL) or body cavity B-cell lymphoma (BCBL), and plasmablastic multicentric Castleman's disease (pMCD) (1-3). In vivo, KSHV DNA and transcripts have been identified in human B cells, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, macrophages, and keratinocytes (3, 4). Similar to other herpesviruses, KSHV undergoes two distinguishable phases in its life cycle: latent and lytic infection (3, 4). During primary infection, KSHV initially establishes latent infection in specific target cells, during which multiple copies of the viral genome are stably maintained as extrachromosomal episomes (3,5). Only a few viral genes, primarily localized in the major latency locus of the genome, are expressed during this phase. These gene products bestow numerous essential functionalities to the dormant viral genome, such as evading host immune surveillance (6), promoting cellular proliferation (7-9), maintaining the viral episome (10), and tightly suppressing viral lytic gene expression (11). However, both spontaneous reactivation and induced reactivation of the latent genome occur, resulting in the systematic expression of the full repertoire of viral genes, which leads to viral genome replication and virion production (4). Previous studies suggested that lytic reactivation

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), the cellular master regulator of the antioxidant response, dissociates from its inhibitor Keap1 when activated by stress signals and participates in the pathogenesis of viral infections and tumorigenesis. Early during de novo infection of endothelial cells, KSHV induces Nrf2 through an intricate mechanism involving reactive oxygen species (ROS) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). When we investigated the Nrf2 activity during latent KSHV infection, we observed increased nuclear serine-40-phosphorylated Nrf2 in human KS lesions compared to that in healthy tissues. Using KSHV long-term-infected endothelial cells (LTC) as a cellular model for KS, we demonstrated that KSHV infection induces Nrf2 constitutively by extending its half-life, increasing its phosphorylation by protein kinase C (PKC) via the infection-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)/PGE2 axis and inducing its nuclear localization. Nrf2 knockdown in LTC decreased expression of antioxidant genes and genes involved in KS pathogenesis such as the NAD(P)H quinone oxidase 1 (NQO1), gamma glutamylcysteine synthase heavy unit (␥GCSH), the cysteine transporter (xCT), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) genes. Nrf2 activation was independent of oxidative stress but dependent on the autophagic protein sequestosome-1 (SQSTM1; p62). SQSTM1 levels were elevated in LTC, a consequence of protein accumulation due to decreased autophagy and Nrf2-mediated transcriptional activation. SQSTM1 was phosphorylated on serine-351 and -403, while Keap1 was polyubiquitinated with lysine-63-ubiquitin chains, modifications known to increase their mutual affinity and interaction, leading to Keap1 degradation and Nrf2 activation. The latent KSHV protein Fas-associated death domain-like interleukin-1␤-converting enzyme-inhibitory protein (vFLIP) increased SQSTM1 expression and activated Nrf2. Collectively, these results demonstrate that KSHV induces SQSTM1 to constitutively activate Nrf2, which is involved in the regulation of genes participating in KSHV oncogenesis. IMPORTANCEThe transcription factor Nrf2 is activated by stress signals, including viral infection, and responds by activating the transcription of cytoprotective genes. Recently, Nrf2 has been implicated in oncogenesis and was shown to be activated during de novo KSHV infection of endothelial cells through ROS-dependent pathways. The present study was undertaken to determine the mechanism of Nrf2 activation during prolonged latent infection of endothelial cells, using an endothelial cell line latently infected with KSHV. We show that Nrf2 activation was elevated in KSHV latently infected endothelial cells independently of oxidative stress but dependent on the autophagic protein sequestosome-1 (SQSTM1), which was involved in the degradation of the Nrf2 inhibitor Keap1. Furthermore, our results indicated that the KSHV latent protein vFLIP participates in Nrf2 activation. This study suggests that KSHV hijacks the host's autophagic protein SQS...

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is etiologically associated with Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman's disease. We have previously shown that KSHV utilizes the host transcription factor Nrf2 to aid in infection of endothelial cells and oncogenesis. Here, we investigate the role of Nrf2 in PEL and PEL-derived cell lines and show that KSHV latency induces Nrf2 protein levels and transcriptional activity through the COX-2/PGE2/EP4/PKC axis. Next-generation sequencing of KSHV transcripts in the PEL-derived BCBL-1 cell line revealed that knockdown of this activated Nrf2 results in global elevation of lytic genes. Nrf2 inhibition by the chemical brusatol also induces lytic gene expression. Both Nrf2 knockdown and brusatol-mediated inhibition induced KSHV lytic reactivation in BCBL-1 cells. In a series of follow-up experiments, we characterized the mechanism of Nrf2-mediated regulation of KSHV lytic repression during latency. Biochemical assays showed that Nrf2 interacted with KSHV latency-associated nuclear antigen 1 (LANA-1) and the host transcriptional repressor KAP1, which together have been shown to repress lytic gene expression. Promoter studies showed that although Nrf2 alone induces the open reading frame 50 (ORF50) promoter, its association with LANA-1 and KAP1 abrogates this effect. Interestingly, LANA-1 is crucial for efficient KAP1/Nrf2 association, while Nrf2 is essential for LANA-1 and KAP1 recruitment to the ORF50 promoter and its repression. Overall, these results suggest that activated Nrf2, LANA-1, and KAP1 assemble on the ORF50 promoter in a temporal fashion. Initially, Nrf2 binds to and activates the ORF50 promoter during early de novo infection, an effect that is exploited during latency by LANA-1-mediated recruitment of the host transcriptional repressor KAP1 on Nrf2. Cell death assays further showed that Nrf2 and KAP1 knockdown induce significant cell death in PEL cell lines. Our studies suggest that Nrf2 modulation through available oral agents is a promising therapeutic approach in the treatment of KSHV-associated malignancies. IMPORTANCEKS and PEL are aggressive KSHV-associated malignancies with moderately effective, highly toxic chemotherapies. Other than ganciclovir and alpha interferon (IFN-␣) prophylaxis, no KSHV-associated chemotherapy targets the underlying infection, a major oncogenic force. Hence, drugs that selectively target KSHV infection are necessary to eradicate the malignancy while sparing healthy cells. We recently showed that KSHV infection of endothelial cells activates the transcription factor Nrf2 to promote an environment conducive to infection and oncogenesis. Nrf2 is modulated through several well-tolerated oral agents and may be an important target in KSHV biology. Here, we investigate the role of Nrf2 in PEL and demonstrate that Nrf2 plays an important role in KSHV gene expression, lytic reactivation, and cell survival by interacting with the host transcriptional repressor KAP1 and the viral latency-...

Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is etiologically associated with endothelial Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) and B-cell proliferative primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), common malignancies seen in immunocompromised HIV-1 infected patients. The progression of these cancers occurs by the proliferation of cells latently infected with KSHV, which is highly dependent on autocrine and paracrine factors secreted from the infected cells. Glutamate and glutamate receptors have emerged as key regulators of intracellular signaling pathways and cell proliferation. However, whether they play any role in the pathological changes associated with virus induced oncogenesis is not known. Here, we report the first systematic study of the role of glutamate and its metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1) in KSHV infected cell proliferation. Our studies show increased glutamate secretion and glutaminase expression during de novo KSHV infection of endothelial cells as well as in KSHV latently infected endothelial and B-cells. Increased mGluR1 expression was detected in KSHV infected KS and PEL tissue sections. Increased c-Myc and glutaminase expression in the infected cells was mediated by KSHV latency associated nuclear antigen 1 (LANA-1). In addition, mGluR1 expression regulating host RE-1 silencing transcription factor/neuron restrictive silencer factor (REST/NRSF) was retained in the cytoplasm of infected cells. KSHV latent protein Kaposin A was also involved in the over expression of mGluR1 by interacting with REST in the cytoplasm of infected cells and by regulating the phosphorylation of REST and interaction with β-TRCP for ubiquitination. Colocalization of Kaposin A with REST was also observed in KS and PEL tissue samples. KSHV infected cell proliferation was significantly inhibited by glutamate release inhibitor and mGluR1 antagonists. These studies demonstrated that elevated glutamate secretion and mGluR1 expression play a role in KSHV induced cell proliferation and suggest that targeting glutamate and mGluR1 is an attractive therapeutic strategy to effectively control the KSHV associated malignancies.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) enters human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMVEC-d), its naturalInteraction between Hrs and ROCK1 is essential for the ROCK1-induced phosphorylation of NHE1 (Na ؉ /H ؉ exchanger 1), which is involved in the regulation of intracellular pH. Thus, our studies demonstrate the plasma membrane association of ESCRT protein Hrs during macropinocytosis and suggest that KSHV entry requires both Hrs-and ROCK1-dependent mechanisms and that ROCK1-mediated phosphorylation of NHE1 and pH change is an essential event required for the macropinocytosis of KSHV. IMPORTANCEMacropinocytosis is the major entry pathway of KSHV in human dermal microvascular endothelial cells, the natural target cells of KSHV. Although the role of ESCRT protein Hrs has been extensively studied with respect to endosomal movement and sorting of ubiquitinated proteins into lysosomes, its function in macropinocytosis is not known. In the present study, we demonstrate for the first time that upon KSHV infection, the endogenous Hrs localizes to the plasma membrane and the membraneassociated Hrs facilitates assembly of signaling molecules, macropinocytosis, and virus entry. Hrs recruits ROCK1 to the membrane, which is required for the activation of NHE1 and an increase in submembranous intracellular pH occurring during macropinocytosis. These studies demonstrate that the localization of Hrs from the cytosol to the plasma membrane is important for coupling membrane dynamics to the cytosolic signaling events during macropinocytosis of KSHV. K aposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) entry into its in vitro adherent target cells is a multistage process which involves binding of viral glycoproteins to cell surface heparan sulfate receptors followed by interaction with specific entry receptors, induction of cell signaling pathways, and endocytosis. KSHV exploits multiple host cell surface receptors, including integrins ␣3␤1, ␣V␤3, ␣V␤5, and ␣9␤1 and nonintegrins CD98/xCT and EphA2, to enter the adherent target cells such as human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMVEC-d) and human foreskin fibroblast (HFF) cells (1-6). The interaction of KSHV with its specific entry receptors leads to the formation of a multimolecular receptor complex consisting of integrins, xCT, and EphA2 (2, 4, 7). Receptor engagement and multimolecular receptor complex formation result in autophosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and activation of Src, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K), and Rho GTPases, and all of these molecules are targeted to specific entry sites on the plasma membrane (8-10). Our previous studies have demonstrated that the signal transduction pathways induced by KSHV and the consequent activation of their downstream molecules play a central role in coordinating the actin dynamics and the membrane protein assembly required for the successful entry of the virus into the cytoplasm (8-10). The

No abstract

No abstract