Two very different aspects of democratic theory are as a rule emphasized in the prolific and ever-growing literature on the problems of democracy. One concerns policy output: the content of policies should reflect the demands and wishes of the majority of the people to whom the policies apply. The second concerns policy making: policies should be made through the active participation of those affected by the policies. The degree of attention given to each of these two aspects varies. Sometimes the content aspect is emphasized, sometimes the participation aspect.Attention of the late 1960s and early 1970s -in Sweden as well as in most other countries -has very clearly been directed towards the participation aspect of democratic theory. A wave of demands for more participation in decisionmaking has swept around the world, and these demands have been raised in very different walks of life.'It is important, I think, to make two rather simple distinctions in a discussion about participatory democracy. One pertains to the type of participants involved, the other to the methods used for participation.More participation in decision-making can be demanded by single individuals or by aggregates of individuals. The latter can be of a rather formal character -for example, a political party or an interest organization -or groups of a less institutionalized nature based on common language, religion, race, locality, etc. The main importance in this connection is, however, the difference between single individuals at a grassroots level asking for more participation and aggregates of individuals.This distinction can be expressed in terms of individual-oriented and grouporiented participation.The method used for participation can be of a direct or an indirect nature. This is the classical distinction between direct and represenfalive democracy. Direct democracy, as has been frequently pointed out, can take two different forms:
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