Our goal was to develop a robust algorithm for numerical simulation of one-dimensional shallow water flow in a complex multiply-connected channel network with arbitrary geometry and variable topography. We apply a central-upwind scheme with a novel reconstruction of the open water surface in partially flooded cells that does not require additional correction. The proposed reconstruction and an exact integration of source terms for the momentum conservation equation provide positivity preserving and well-balanced features of the scheme for various wet/dry states. We use two models based on the continuity equation and mass and momentum conservation equations integrated for a control volume around the channel junction to its treatment. These junction models permit to simulate subcritical and supercritical flows in a channel network. Numerous numerical experiments demonstrate the robustness of the proposed numerical algorithm and a good agreement of numerical results with exact solutions, experimental data, and results of the previous numerical studies. The proposed new specialized test on inundation and drying of an initially dry channel network shows the merits of the new numerical algorithm to simulate the subcritical/supercritical open water flows in the networks.
<p>An important aspect of an Earth Systems Science Prediction Systems (ESSPS) is to describe and predict the behavior of contaminants in different environmental compartments following severe accidents at chemical and nuclear installations. Such an ESSPS could be designed as a platform allowing to integrate models describing atmospheric, hydrological, oceanographic processes, physical-chemical transformation of the pollutants in the environment, contamination of food chain, and finally the overall exposure of the population with harmful substances. Such a chain of connected simulation models needed to describe the consequences of severe accidents in the different phases of an emergency should use different input data ranging from real-time online meteorological to long-term numerical weather prediction or ocean data.</p><p>One example of an ESSPS is the Decision Support Systems JRODOS for off-site emergency management after nuclear emergencies. It integrates many different simulation models, real-time monitoring, regional GIS information, source term databases, and geospatial data for population and environmental characteristics.</p><p>The development of the system started in 1992 supported by European Commission&#8217;s RTD Framework programs. Attracting more and more end users, the technical basis of of the system had to be considerably improved. For this, Java has been selected as a high level software language suitable for development of distributed cross-platform enterprise quality applications. From the other hand, a great deal of scientific computational software is available only as C/C++/FORTRAN packages. Moreover, it is a common scenario when some outputs of model A should act as inputs of model B, but the two models do not share common exchange containers and/or are written in different programming languages. <!-- I do not understand that sentence. Maybe better remove --></p><p>To combine the flexibility of Java language and the speed and availability of scientific codes, and to be able to connect different computational codes into one chain of models, the notion of distributed wrapper objects (DWO) has been introduced. DWO provides logical, visual and technical means for the integration of computational models into the core of the system system, even if models and the system use different programming languages. The DWO technology allows various levels of interactivity including pull- and push driven chains, user interaction support, and sub-models calls. All the DWO data exchange is realized in memory and does not include IO disk operations, thus eliminating redundant reader/writer code and minimizing slow disk access. These features introduce more stability and performance of an ESSPS that is used for decision support.</p><p>The current status of the DWO realization in JRODOS is presented focusing on the added value compared to traditional integration of different simulation models into one system.</p>
<p>The measurements of&#160; <sup>137</sup>Cs concentration in the rivers of Fukushima prefecture demonstrate the more significant role of the fluxes of <sup>137</sup>Cs adherent to the suspended sediments in comparison with the rivers contaminated after the Chernobyl accident. Therefore the forecasting of&#160; &#160;<sup>137</sup>Cs&#160; concentration during the floods requires to use the models of radionuclide wash-off from the watersheds with sediments.</p><p>Comprehensive modeling of radionuclide transport processes could be provided on the basis of the physically-based distributed models of hydrological and sediments transport processes. Such distributed models can describe soil erosion and sedimentation processes, as also exchange of the radionuclides between solute, suspended sediment and upper soil level. &#160;We developed such type .model DSHVM-R based on the distributed hydrological- sediment transport model DHSVM of Washington University.&#160; The model implementation for the experimental plots in Fukushima prefecture demonstrated a good possibility of the model for the analyses on the influence of the steepness of the watershed slopes and the intensity of the rainfall in the increased role of particulate <sup>137</sup>Cs transport. &#160;From another side,&#160; the implementation of such a model for large river watershed required too large computational time and significant efforts for processing of the large sets of the distributed data still not available for all watersheds.</p><p>We developed model RETRACE _RS &#160;that combines the simplicity of the watershed empirical models based on the washing -out coefficient approach with the possibility to use geographically distributed data of the radioactive fallout and &#160;GIS layers for rivernets. The model RETRACE_RS is an extension of the model RETRACE _R&#160; (Zheleznyak et al, 2010),&#160; which code is integrated into the Hydrological Dispersion&#160; Module of the Decision Support System RODOS.&#160; &#160;RETRACE_R is based on the assumptions that the rate of the radionuclide wash- off from each elementary grid cell of the watershed can be calculated from precipitation rate and density of deposition in this cell through the &#8220;wash-off&#8221; coefficient Kw; and that the radionuclides washed out from the cell are transported without time delay to the nearest river channel cell - to the grid element of the 1-D river model RIVTOX as lateral inflow. In RETRACE _RS the possibility of RETRACE_R to simulate washing -out of the radionuclides from watershed to river in solute was extended by the fluxes of the particulate radionuclide transport calculated via the &#8220; washing out coefficient for particulate radionuclide transport &#8221; -Kss. The formula to calculate Kss values is based on the empirical relations for the particulate &#160;<sup>137</sup>Cs transport in the rivers of Fukushima prefecture ( Sakuma et al, 2019). The model was tested on the basis of the measurements of <sup>137</sup>Cs concentration in Abukuma river during the high floods in 2018-2019. The modeling system RETRACE_RS&#160; - RIVTOX was validated also on the basis of the data sets of radionuclide transport in the Pripyat and Dnieper rivers. The system is testing for the prediction of aquatic radionuclide transport from the Chernobyl NPP area to the&#160; Kyiv region during the extreme floods.</p><p>&#160;</p>
<p>There are two partially linked risks to the Kyiv city associated with the Dnieper river: (A) risk of the inundation of the urban coastal areas during the extremely high floods or due to the break of the Hydropower Plant dam located upstream Kyiv, and, (B) risk of the secondary radioactive contamination of the Dnieper waters due to the intensification of the dynamics of "Chornobyl" radionuclides during high floods and man-made impacts -&#160; dredging in Kyiv Reservoirs for navigation routes and other purposes.</p><p>The Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant has located 130 km from Kyiv at the bank of Pripyat river, which is 20 km downstream from ChNPP inflows into the Kyiv reservoir of the Dnieper River. After the Chornobyl accident, about 5.4&#215;10<sup>13</sup> Bq of <sup>137</sup>Cs and 10<sup>13</sup> Bq of <sup>90</sup>Sr were deposited in the bottom sediments of the Kyiv Reservoir. Nowadays, 35 years after the Chornobyl accident, the population of Kyiv still is very sensitive to the risks of secondary environmental contaminations by the &#8220;Chornobyl radionuclides&#8221;. Therefore even low levels of such risks should be carefully assessed by well-grounded methods.</p><p>The main goals of our multidisciplinary study are:</p><ul><li>to develop a model/data based Decision Support System (DSS) for the assessment of both kind of the described above risks A) and B),</li> <li>to analyze the influence of the natural hazard &#8211; extremely high river floods on the resuspension of contaminated sediments and environmental risks due to the man-made impacts &#8211; dredging, dam breaks, and others.</li> </ul><p>The components of these research and development activities are following:</p><ul><li>field and laboratory studies of the contemporary contamination of the bottom sediments and biota in the Kyiv reservoir to receive the input data for the model calibration and improvement of the model structure;</li> <li>customization for the Kyiv Reservoir and the Dnieper river at Kyiv of the 2D COASTOX model which the hydrodynamic module is based on the nonlinear shallow water equations, and the sediment/radionuclide transport model using the advection-diffusion equations with specific sink/source terms for radionuclides;</li> <li>customization for the Kyiv Reservoir of the hydro-ecological POSEIDON model that simulates the influence of resuspension of radioactive sediments on the contamination of fishes and other hydrobionts;</li> <li>improvement of methods for the numerical solution of model equations and algorithms based on finite volume methods for their parallelization using multiprocessor systems and graphics cards to speed up computations;</li> <li>to create high-performance DSS with a user-friendly interface that can use GPUs to quickly predict the radiation status of surface waters and inundation of river banks in emergencies.</li> </ul><p>The DSS is installed in the Department of Hydrological Forecasting of the Ukrainian Hydrometeorological Center and is used for the quantification of the risk scenarios and analyses of the links of both risks. Due to the high computational performance, the DSS can be used for the real-time numerical predictions with the zoning of the flood risks in a case of emergency.</p>
<p>The coastal areas of three nuclear power plants (NPP) in the Tohoku region of Japan were impacted by the tsunami waves of the earthquake on 11 March 2011. The overtopping of the tsunami protective dikes of Fukushima Daiichi NPP and inundation of the NPP site was followed by the nuclear accident with a large scale environmental contamination. The site of the &#8220;sister&#8221; NPP Fukushima Daini at 10 km southward from Fukushima Daichi was also inundated by waters of similar depths; however, quick reconstruction the emergency energy supply of the reactors has prevented a nuclear accident on this site. Onagawa NPP located 115 km North-East of Fukushima Daiichi is the closest NPP to the epicenter of the earthquake &#8211; the source of tsunami waves. The tsunami protection dike of this NPP was not overtopped.</p> <p>To simulate the consequences of the radioactive contamination of the coastal waters at Fukushima Daiichi NPP we use the modelling system that includes the module of the numerical solution of the nonlinear shallow water equation (SWE). This module can also be used for the modelling of tsunami propagation and inundation of the coastal areas. For the testing of the SWE module, we provided the modeling of the tsunami propagation and coastal inundation in at the coast of Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures from Onagawa to Iwaki 11 March 2011. The presented part of the work includes the results of the model verification and analyses of the dynamics of the inundation of the sites of three NPPs.</p> <p>The development of the 2D model COASTOX has started after the Chernobyl accident for simulations radionuclide transport in the rivers at ChNPP (Zheleznyak et al, 1989-2000). The hydrodynamic module is based on the shallow water equations. The 2-D depth-averaged advection-diffusion equations with sink source terms are used to describe the transport of suspended sediments and radionuclide in solute and with suspended sediments. The contemporary version of COASTOX code is based on the solution of 2-D shallow water equations on unstructured triangular grids using the Finite Volume Method with the verified possibilities for the modelling of wetting-drying flows. We implement a Godunov-type flux calculation scheme with approximate HLLC or Roe methods of solving a Riemann problem. The shock waves are resolved by using TVD flux limiting. COASTOX code includes two finite-difference algorithms for the numerical solution of sediment and radionuclide transport equations: explicit and implicit. For the solution of erosion-deposition equation and bottom contamination equation source, terms in transport equations are treated implicitly. The numerical code is parallelized for the CPU multi-processors systems and GPU. The SWE module was tested for the river floodplain inundation for the number of the cases and for the simulation of the radionuclide wash off from the floodplain of the Pripyat river at Chernobyl NPP. The model was implemented for the Tohoku coast on a grid of 2 million cells. The modelling results were compared with the published tsunami gage data. &#160;The dynamics of the inundation of three NPPs sites were analyzed.</p>
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