Chitin, being the second most abundant biopolymer after cellulose, has been gaining popularity since its initial discovery by Braconot in 1811. However, fundamental knowledge and literature on chitin and its derivatives from insects are difficult to obtain. The most common and sought-after sources of chitin are shellfish (especially crustaceans) and other aquatic invertebrates. The amount of shellfish available is obviously restricted by the amount of food waste that is allowed; hence, it is a limited resource. Therefore, insects are the best choices since, out of 1.3 million species in the world, 900,000 are insects, making them the most abundant species in the world. In this review, a total of 82 samples from shellfish—crustaceans and mollusks (n = 46), insects (n = 23), and others (n = 13)—have been collected and studied for their chemical extraction of chitin and its derivatives. The aim of this paper is to review the extraction method of chitin and chitosan for a comparison of the optimal demineralization and deproteinization processes, with a consideration of insects as alternative sources of chitin. The methods employed in this review are based on comprehensive bibliographic research. Based on previous data, the chitin and chitosan contents of insects in past studies favorably compare and compete with those of commercial chitin and chitosan—for example, 45% in Bombyx eri, 36.6% in Periostracum cicadae (cicada sloughs), and 26.2% in Chyrysomya megacephala. Therefore, according to the data reported by previous researchers, demonstrating comparable yield values to those of crustacean chitin and the great interest in insects as alternative sources, efforts towards comprehensive knowledge in this field are relevant.
The present investigation was aimed in determining the antibacterial activity of Clitoria ternatea that experiencing water stress treatment which comprises of positive control (watered normally for every 24 hours), negative control (no presence of water) and a treatment where C. ternatea receive water for every 48 hours. Agar disk diffusion assay had been utilized in order to investigate the measurement of zone of inhibition based on the methanolic leaf extract of C. ternatea for each treatment. Plus, calculation had been done for total phenolic content and total flavonoid content, to correlate between the length of inhibition zone. The results show that there is no presence of inhibition zone for all treatments which might be due to the low potency of the methanolic leaf extract, 0.02g/ml. C. ternatea that undergo every 48 hours of water presence hold the highest amount of total phenolic content whilst C. ternatea that encountered negative control of treatment possess the high amount of total flavonoid content. High quantity of phenolic and flavonoid content can be related with high amount of antioxidant capacity.
Centella asiatica, Piper sarmentosum and Morinda citrifolia is well-known for their memory enhancement contribution from traditional practices as well as recent researches. However, all three herbs are utilized individually and never mixed together. The nutrient data on the synergistic effect on all three herbs remain scarce. The aims of this research project were to apply Simplex-centroid mixture design in describing the study for the effect of polyherbal formulation on antioxidants properties and its synergistic effects. Based on results obtained, there was a significant difference in antioxidant properties of the polyherbal formulation. The results show the polyherbal formulation 3 and 13 (M. citrifolia only) has the highest antioxidant capacity when being tested with total phenolic content (TPC) (210.10 and 209.12 µg GAE/mL respectively) and 2,2-diphenyl-1- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (42.94 and 37.77%) assays. Contradict to this result, the highest in total flavonoid content (TFC) and 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) for describing antioxidant properties are formulations 1 and 11 (C. asiatica only). The TPC for formulation 1 and 11 are 479.8 µg RE/mL and 470 µg RE/mL respectively while ABTS radical inhibition for formulation 1 and 11 are 64.53% and 60% respectively. For ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assay, formulation 7 (2.11 µg FSE/mL) is the highest which have 1:1:1 ratio of each herb. In addition, TPC, TFC, and DPPH assays showed high antioxidant activities when only single herbs were added into the formulation. Meanwhile, ABTS and FRAP are prone to binary polyherbal formulation. Hence, this study showed an antagonism effect instead of synergistic effect since single formulation exhibited the highest for TPC, TFC and DPPH. All tests gave the lowest antioxidant properties when the mix was ternary polyherbal formulation.
Food preservative plays an important role in maintaining food quality and extending shelf life. Essential oils as natural preservatives are preferred due to its pose as less harmful to human as compared to chemical preservatives. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of lemongrass oil blend microemulsion by studying its physical properties, stability and antibacterial efficacy in curry paste. Ternary phase diagram is constructed via phase titration method for the microemulsion formulation. Microemulsion technology improves the effectiveness of lemongrass essential oil by stabilizing and preserving its own natural benefits. The antibacterial compounds identification was elucidated by GC-MS. The overall results concluded that lemongrass oil blend microemulsion shows transparent appearance, low acidity (pH 4.1 - 5.1), moderate conductivity (18 - 58 μS/cm), low viscosity (<4 mPa second) and high stability. It can be an alternative for natural preservative with all the traits obtained in this study with an additional antibacterial effect by d-limonene, citronellal, citronellol and citral.
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