In Norway, as in many countries, a political goal is to increase bicycle use, and the ebike is promising in this respect. However, concerns have been raised about modeshare effects. It has been argued that if the e-bike's only function is in cycling becoming cycling with electric assistance, there would be no benefit to either the environment or public health. Little is yet known about the use of the e-bike, or of its potential in reducing motorized travel. In the current study, 66 randomly selected participants were given an e-bike to use for a limited period of time and the results compared with those of a control group (N=160). E-bike cycling trips increased from 0.9 to 1.4 per day, distance from 4.8 km to 10.3 km and, as a share of all transport, from 28% to 48%, whereas with the control group there was no increase in cycling. The effect of the e-bike increased with time, indicating a learning effect among users, and was greater for female than for male cyclists. There were no differences with age. Overall, the results suggest that the e-bike is indeed practical for everyday travel.

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In Norway, as in many countries, there is a political goal to increase bicycle use. The electric bicycle (e-bike) is a promising tool for achieving this goal, given the hilliness of the country. However, little is yet known about the deterrents of cycling in Norway in general, and in particular how the purchase of an e-bike could be stimulated. In the current study, 5500 respondents from a convenience sample among car owners were asked about their perceptions of bicycling in general, and of e-bikes in particular as well as their willingness to pay (WTP) for an e-bike. Randomly selected participants (N D 66) were given access to an e-bike for a limited time (2 or 4 weeks). A second questionnaire captured the same perceptions and WTP postintervention. The results were compared with a control group (N D 214). The results showed that those who cycle the least were most interested in buying an e-bike and that prior knowledge of the e-bike corresponded with a higher desire to buy one. Pro-environmental values did not predict interest in e-bikes, neither did norms and attitudes toward cycling. The WTP for an e-bike increased after having experienced the benefits for those who used an e-bike compared to those who did not. Price reduction of the e-bike (e.g. VAT exemption), spread of knowledge among the wider population, and actions to offer an e-bike experience may therefore be effective strategies for further expansion of the e-bike in the transport system and thereby to increase bicycle use in Norway.

This article investigates the merits of free public transport as a means to achieve a number of transport policy objectives, including mode shift towards public transport. It outlines some political and societal motivations behind proposals for free and low fare schemes, and presents key economic principles for public transport pricing. Examples of free fare schemes mainly from Europe are summarised and their impacts synthesised. Although free public transport at a first glance may seem attractive both from economic, social and environmental perspectives, the message learnt from a number of schemes is that free public transport offers poor goal achievement in all these respects, and at a high cost. The main effect is a huge growth in patronage, up to 13-fold increase is reported, of which the larger brunt is shifted from walk/cycle, or induced. The effects on car traffic levels are marginal and typically they are offset already after a few years' traffic growth. Successful free public transport schemes are those whose goal is mainly to grow patronage. Congestion relief, social and environmental benefits are best achieved with more targeted measures, or in combination with such measures.

The article introduces a design process for policy packaging, combining a heuristic approach with a real world example of European policy making. The policy packaging process is divided into six stages, starting with (1) the definition of goals and objectives, (2) the creation of an inventory of measures, (3) the formulation and assessment of the initial package, (4) the modification of the initial package through adding, adjusting or removing measures, (5) package implementation, and finally (6) the monitoring and evaluation of the package. The process stands as a generic, comprehensive framework developed as a means of guiding policy formulation and increasing the likelihood of efficient, effective and acceptable policy interventions. The approach is compared to practice, examining whether it can support policy formulation in relation to the EU 2011 White Paper on transport. It shows that several principles of the design process are already reflected by the White Paper, with some important differences also observed. While objectives, targets, and an inventory of measures are part of the White Paper, policies recommended for implementation are treated separately as discrete interventions. The White Paper hence lacks examples or recommendations as to how various measures might be combined in order to achieve the policy objectives. Based on a policy example from the White Paper, it is attempted to apply the heuristic framework and offer recommendations on how to best construct a policy package.

Introduction This paper is concerned with incentives for the take-up and use of e-vehicles that are in place in different European countries. Especially, it analyses Norway and Austria, in order to establish and understand factors influencing the competitiveness of e-vehicles and potential market penetration. Norway currently enjoys the world's largest take-up of electric cars per capita, achieved through an extensive package of incentives. Austria has used the concept of Model Regions with government support to stimulate market introduction. So far, this has been a less effective approach. Methods The paper brings in and combine analyses of national travel survey data and web surveys to e-vehicle owners and non-e-vehicle owners. It considers socio-economic factors including convenience and time savings due to e-vehicle policies. Results Analysing national travel surveys, we find a considerable potential for e-vehicles based on people's everyday travel. Social networks play a crucial role in spreading knowledge about this relatively new technology. The take-up of battery electric vehicles correlates relatively closely with the user value of e-vehicle incentives. The fiscal effects of evehicle incentives are non-trivial -especially in the longer run. The cost of lifting a new technology into the market by means of government incentives is significant. We point to the importance of a strategy for the gradual phasing out of evehicle policies in countries with large incentives when the cost of vehicles goes down and the technology improves. Conclusions Successful market uptake and expansion of electric vehicles requires massive, expensive and combined policies. Central government backing, long term commitment and market-oriented incentives help reduce the perceived risk for market players like car importers and allow the e-vehicle market to thrive. For countries with low e-vehicle market shares the potential is promising. Battery electric vehicles are already a real option for the majority of peoples' everyday trips and trip chains. However, their relative disadvantages must be compensated by means of incentives -at least in the initial market launch phase. Diffusion mechanisms play a sizeable role. The lack of knowledge in the population at large must be addressed.

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