A nested multiplex PCR (NMPCR) assay that combines degenerate E6/E7 consensus primers and typespecific primers was evaluated for the detection and typing of human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes 6/11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, and 68 using HPV DNA-containing plasmids and cervical scrapes (n ؍ 1,525). The performance of the NMPCR assay relative to that of conventional PCR with MY09-MY11 and GP5؉-GP6؉ primers, and nested PCR with these two primer sets (MY/GP) was evaluated in 495 cervical scrapes with corresponding histologic and cytologic findings. HPV prevalence rates determined with the NMPCR assay were 34.7% (102 of Human papillomomaviruses (HPVs) constitute a group of more than 100 different genotypes associated with benign and malignant neoplasms of skin and mucous membranes (5, 34). Approximately 40 different HPV genotypes have been detected in the anogenital mucosa (34). On the basis of their epidemiological association with the development of cervical carcinoma, a group of so-called high-risk HPV genotypes has been defined. These include HPV genotype 16 (HPV-16),
Taxonomy is an imprecise science that delimits the evolutionary continuum into discrete categories. For marine mammals, this science is complicated by the relative lack of morphological data for taxa that inhabit remote and often vast ranges. We provide guidelines to promote consistency in studies relying primarily on molecular genetic data to delimit cetacean subspecies from both populations and species. These guidelines identify informational needs: basis for the taxonomic hypothesis being tested, description of current taxonomy, description of relevant life history, sample distribution, sample size, number and sequence length of genetic markers, description of measures taken to ensure data quality, summary statistics for the genetic markers, and analytical methods used to evaluate the genetic data. We propose an initial set of quantitative and qualitative standards based on the types of data and analytical methods most readily available at present. These standards are not expected to be rigidly applied. Rather, they are meant to encourage taxonomic arguments that are consistent and transparent. We hope professional societies, such as the Society for Marine Mammalogy, will adopt quantitative standards that evolve as new data types and analytical methods become widely available.
Uncertainty in marine mammal taxonomy is increasingly being addressed using molecular genetic data. We examined 32 peer‐reviewed articles published between 1994 and 2011to review methodological practices, consistency of markers and analytical methods, and overall quality of arguments used when genetic data have been employed to delimit new species and subspecies of marine mammals. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region was the primary genetic marker used in these studies, but analytical methods varied greatly across studies. Diagnosability, a common metric for delimiting subspecies with morphological data, was only used through citing of fixed differences in mtDNA sequences. Assignment tests based on microsatellite data were less common but were applied at both taxonomic levels. Nuclear DNA sequence data were rarely used. Basic background material needed to evaluate the strength of arguments, such as distribution and sampling maps, were often missing. For most studies, sample sizes were good, but adequate geographic sampling for broadly distributed taxa was often lacking, diminishing the strength of evidence for taxonomic distinctness. Examining these empirical cases revealed a mixture of sound and inadequate practices for genetic studies of cetacean taxonomy and suggested that improvements could be made to the field by developing standard guidelines.
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