This study examined both risk factors for the onset of work-family conflict and consequences in terms of need for recovery and prolonged fatigue for men and women separately. Two-year follow-up data from the Maastricht Cohort Study on "Fatigue at Work" (n = 12,095) were used. At baseline, the prevalence of work-family conflict was 10.8% (9.0% in women; 11.1% in men), the cumulative incidence at 1 year follow-up was 5.1%. For men, several work-related demands, shift work, job insecurity, conflicts with coworkers or supervisor, having full responsibility for housekeeping, and having to care for a chronically ill child or other family member at home were risk factors for the onset of work-family conflict, whereas decision latitude and coworker and supervisor social support protected against work-family conflict. In women, physical demands, overtime work, commuting time to work, and having dependent children were risk factors for work-family conflict, whereas domestic help protected against work-family conflict at 1 year follow-up. Work-family conflict was further shown to be a strong risk factor for the onset of elevated need for recovery from work and fatigue.

This study examined the concept of need for recovery, that is the need to recuperate from work-induced fatigue, experienced after a day of work. The study explored the relationship between need for recovery from work, prolonged fatigue, and psychological distress in the working population. A cross-sectional study was carried out. Data of the Maastricht Cohort Study on fatigue at work were used (n = 12,095). Some degree of need for recovery was found in nearly all employees. Need for recovery from work was associated with demographic, work-related, and health factors. Principal Components Analysis revealed obvious separation between need for recovery items and both fatigue items and psychological distress items, supporting the notion that need for recovery, fatigue, and psychological distress represent different underlying concepts. Although need for recovery, fatigue, and psychological distress were frequently comorbid, they also clearly occurred as separate entities.

In this paper working hours, patterns and work schedules of employees were evaluated in terms of need for recovery from work. Self-administered questionnaire data from employees of the Maastricht Cohort Study on Fatigue at Work (n = 12,095) were used. Poisson regression analyses and multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that higher working hours a day and working hours a week generally went together with more need for recovery from work. Overtime work was particularly associated with higher need for recovery from work in both genders. Both male and female three-shift or irregular shift workers had higher odds of elevated need for recovery compared to day workers. When additionally controlling for work-related factors, need for recovery levels among shift workers substantially lowered. This study clearly showed that working hours and schedules are associated with need for recovery from work, with different associations for men and women. Especially the associations between work schedules and need for recovery from work were very interrelated with other work-related factors. Future studies could further investigate the possibility that shift work might function as a proxy of other work-related factors that explain the different levels in need for recovery from work, or that job demands are perceived higher among shift workers and may therefore lead to more need for recovery from work.

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Objectives: (1) To study both cross-sectional and prospective relationships between work-family conflict and sickness absence from work; (2) to explore the direction of the relationships between the different types of conflict (work-home interference and home-work interference) and sickness absence; and (3) to explore gender differences in the above relationships. Methods: Data from the Maastricht Cohort Study were used with six months of follow up (5072 men and 1015 women at T6). Work-family conflict was measured with the Survey Work-Home Interference Nijmegen (SWING). Sickness absence was assessed objectively through individual record linkage with the company registers on sickness absence. Results: In the cross-sectional analyses, high levels of work-family conflict, work-home interference, and home-work interference were all associated with a higher odds of being absent at the time of completing the questionnaire, after controlling for age and long term disease. Differences in average number of absent days between cases and non-cases of work-home interference were significant for men and most pronounced in women, where the average number of absent days over six months follow up was almost four days higher in women with high versus low-medium work-home interference. Conclusions: A clear relation between work-family conflict and sickness absence was shown. Additionally, the direction of work-family conflict was associated with a different sickness absence pattern. Sickness absence should be added to the list of adverse outcomes for employees struggling to combine their work and family life.

van Amelsvoort LGPM, Jansen NWH, Swaen GMH, van den Brandt PA, Kant I. Direction of shift rotation among three-shift workers in relation to psychological health and work-family conflict. Scand J Work Environ Health 2004;30(2):149-156. ObjectivesThe aim of the present study was to investigate whether the direction of shift rotation was related to the need for recovery, fatigue, sleep quality, work-family conflict, and leisure time among three-shift workers.Methods Data of 95 workers in forward-rotating three-shift work and 681 workers in backward-rotating threeshift work, with 32 months of follow-up, in the Maastricht cohort study (N=12 095) were used. Both crosssectional and longitudinal analyses were carried out.Results A backward rotation schedule was prospectively related to an increased need for recovery [relative risk (RR) 2.88, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.06-7.81] and poor general health (RR 3.21, 95% CI 1.32-7.83), as compared with a forward rotation schedule. Adjustment for demographic and health variables and the characteristics of the work environment did not alter these relations considerably. Furthermore, a forward rotation schedule was prospectively related to less work-family conflict and better sleep quality over the 32 months of follow-up. Finally, high levels of fatigue, need for recovery, poor sleep quality, poor general health, insufficient leisure time, and work-family conflict at first measurement were associated with an increased risk of leaving shiftwork during the follow-up. ConclusionsOptimization of shiftwork schedules, in terms of shift rotation, seems a promising method for decreasing the negative impact accompanying shiftwork. Future studies should investigate whether these findings for three-shift workers are applicable to other shiftwork schedules as well. Furthermore, this study clearly illustrates the existence of secondary selection processes among shiftworkers and thereby emphasizes the complexity of valid shiftwork research.

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Working time arrangements that require shift work or other non-standard working hours have significant potential to encroach on time that is highly valued for family, social and leisure activity. This can often result in workers experiencing poorer work-family or work-life balance. Based on an extensive literature search and expert knowledge, primary risk factors were identified including shift work; long, irregular and unpredictable working hours; and work on evenings and weekends (in combination and independent of shift work). On the other hand, flexibility, in the form of adequate worker control over work schedules, may be a protective factor. In addition, workers experiencing excessive work-life conflict are likely to reduce their working hours, reflecting a reciprocal relationship between working hours and work-life balance. Workers' families are also affected by shift work and non-standard working hours. Parents' shift work is associated with poorer emotional and developmental outcomes for their children, and to a greater likelihood of risky behavior in adolescence. Additionally, the risk of separation or divorce is increased, especially for parents working night shifts. Due to relationships such as those above, the consequences of shiftwork and non-standard working hours on family and social life are largely dependent on a complex interaction between specific work schedules, other aspects of work organization, and family and individual worker characteristics. This article provides an overview of current evidence regarding the relationships between working time arrangements and various social and family variables, and concludes with shift scheduling and intervention recommendations to improve work-life balance and social well-being.