SummaryBackgroundEnteropathogen infections in early childhood not only cause diarrhoea but contribute to poor growth. We used molecular diagnostics to assess whether particular enteropathogens were associated with linear growth across seven low-resource settings.MethodsWe used quantitative PCR to detect 29 enteropathogens in diarrhoeal and non-diarrhoeal stools collected from children in the first 2 years of life obtained during the Etiology, Risk Factors, and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development (MAL-ED) multisite cohort study. Length was measured monthly. We estimated associations between aetiology-specific diarrhoea and subclinical enteropathogen infection and quantity and attained length in 3 month intervals, at age 2 and 5 years, and used a longitudinal model to account for temporality and time-dependent confounding.FindingsAmong 1469 children who completed 2 year follow-up, 35 622 stool samples were tested and yielded valid results. Diarrhoeal episodes attributed to bacteria and parasites, but not viruses, were associated with small decreases in length after 3 months and at age 2 years. Substantial decrements in length at 2 years were associated with subclinical, non-diarrhoeal, infection with Shigella (length-for-age Z score [LAZ] reduction −0·14, 95% CI −0·27 to −0·01), enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (−0·21, −0·37 to −0·05), Campylobacter (−0·17, −0·32 to −0·01), and Giardia (−0·17, −0·30 to −0·05). Norovirus, Cryptosporidium, typical enteropathogenic E coli, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi were also associated with small decrements in LAZ. Shigella and E bieneusi were associated with the largest decreases in LAZ per log increase in quantity per g of stool (−0·13 LAZ, 95% CI −0·22 to −0·03 for Shigella; −0·14, −0·26 to −0·02 for E bieneusi). Based on these models, interventions that successfully decrease exposure to Shigella, enteroaggregative E coli, Campylobacter, and Giardia could increase mean length of children by 0·12–0·37 LAZ (0·4–1·2 cm) at the MAL-ED sites.InterpretationSubclinical infection and quantity of pathogens, particularly Shigella, enteroaggregative E coli, Campylobacter, and Giardia, had a substantial negative association with linear growth, which was sustained during the first 2 years of life, and in some cases, to 5 years. Successfully reducing exposure to certain pathogens might reduce global stunting.FundingBill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

SummaryBackgroundOptimum management of childhood diarrhoea in low-resource settings has been hampered by insufficient data on aetiology, burden, and associated clinical characteristics. We used quantitative diagnostic methods to reassess and refine estimates of diarrhoea aetiology from the Etiology, Risk Factors, and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development (MAL-ED) cohort study.MethodsWe re-analysed stool specimens from the multisite MAL-ED cohort study of children aged 0–2 years done at eight locations (Dhaka, Bangladesh; Vellore, India; Bhaktapur, Nepal; Naushero Feroze, Pakistan; Venda, South Africa; Haydom, Tanzania; Fortaleza, Brazil; and Loreto, Peru), which included active surveillance for diarrhoea and routine non-diarrhoeal stool collection. We used quantitative PCR to test for 29 enteropathogens, calculated population-level pathogen-specific attributable burdens, derived stringent quantitative cutoffs to identify aetiology for individual episodes, and created aetiology prediction scores using clinical characteristics.FindingsWe analysed 6625 diarrhoeal and 30 968 non-diarrhoeal surveillance stools from 1715 children. Overall, 64·9% of diarrhoea episodes (95% CI 62·6–71·2) could be attributed to an aetiology by quantitative PCR compared with 32·8% (30·8–38·7) using the original study microbiology. Viral diarrhoea (36·4% of overall incidence, 95% CI 33·6–39·5) was more common than bacterial (25·0%, 23·4–28·4) and parasitic diarrhoea (3·5%, 3·0–5·2). Ten pathogens accounted for 95·7% of attributable diarrhoea: Shigella (26·1 attributable episodes per 100 child-years, 95% CI 23·8–29·9), sapovirus (22·8, 18·9–27·5), rotavirus (20·7, 18·8–23·0), adenovirus 40/41 (19·0, 16·8–23·0), enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (18·8, 16·5–23·8), norovirus (15·4, 13·5–20·1), astrovirus (15·0, 12·0–19·5), Campylobacter jejuni or C coli (12·1, 8·5–17·2), Cryptosporidium (5·8, 4·3–8·3), and typical enteropathogenic E coli (5·4, 2·8–9·3). 86·2% of the attributable incidence for Shigella was non-dysenteric. A prediction score for shigellosis was more accurate (sensitivity 50·4% [95% CI 46·7–54·1], specificity 84·0% [83·0–84·9]) than current guidelines, which recommend treatment only of bloody diarrhoea to cover Shigella (sensitivity 14·5% [95% CI 12·1–17·3], specificity 96·5% [96·0–97·0]).InterpretationQuantitative molecular diagnostics improved estimates of pathogen-specific burdens of childhood diarrhoea in the community setting. Viral causes predominated, including a substantial burden of sapovirus; however, Shigella had the highest overall burden with a high incidence in the second year of life. These data could improve the management of diarrhoea in these low-resource settings.FundingBill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Severe rotavirus diarrhea in children <5 years of age is a major public health problem; however, limited regional and country specific data on rotavirus disease burden are available from sub-Saharan Africa. In June 2006, the World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa initiated rotavirus surveillance in selected African countries. With use of standardized methodology developed by the World Health Organization, children <5 years of age who were hospitalized with severe diarrhea were enrolled, and stool specimens were collected for detection of rotavirus strains with use of a commercial enzyme immunoassay. Rotavirus strains were further characterized for G and P types with use of a reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. From June 2006 through December 2008, rotavirus surveillance was established at 14 sites in 11 African countries. Of 5461 stool samples collected from children enrolled in 8 countries with 1 or 2 complete years of data, 2200 (40%) were positive for rotavirus. Ninety percent of all rotavirus hospitalizations occurred among children aged 3-12 months. Predominant types included G1P[8] (21%), G2P[4] (7%), and P [8] (29%); however, unusual types were also detected, including G8P[6] (5%), G8P[8] (1%), G12P[6] (1%), and G12P[6] (1%). A high percentage of mixed rotavirus infections was also detected. These preliminary results indicate that rotavirus is a major cause of severe diarrheal disease in African children.

This paper reports significant improvements in the efficacy of sequence-independent amplification and quality of sequencing of viruses with segmented double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genomes. We demonstrate that most remaining bottlenecks in dsRNA virus genome characterization have now been eliminated. Both the amplification and sequencing technologies used require no previous sequence knowledge of the viral dsRNA, there is no longer a need to separate genome segments or amplicons and the sequence-determined bias observed in cloning has been overcome. Combining very efficient genome amplification with pyrophosphate-based 454 (GS20/ FLX) sequencing enabled sequencing of complete segmented dsRNA genomes and accelerated the sequence analysis of the amplified viral genomes. We report the complete consensus sequence of seven viruses from four different dsRNA virus groups, which include the first complete sequence of the genome of equine encephalosis virus (EEV), the first complete sequence of an African horsesickness virus (AHSV) genome determined directly from a blood sample and a complete human rotavirus genome determined from faeces. We also present the first comparison between the complete consensus sequence of a virulent and an attenuated strain of AHSV1. Ultra-deep sequencing (.400-fold coverage) of the AHSV1 reference and attenuated strains revealed different ratios of reassortants in the reference strain and allowed quasispecies detection in the plaque-purified attenuated strain of AHSV1. This approach amounts to a paradigm shift in dsRNA virus research, since it is sensitive and specific enough for comprehensive investigations of the evolution and genetic diversity in dsRNA virus populations.

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Both organizational and individually based interventions may be necessary to minimize PTSD and other emotional disorders among ambulance personnel.

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Rotavirus is responsible for more than half a million deaths among infants and young children worldwide each year; many of these deaths could be prevented by widespread use of an effective rotavirus vaccine. The diversity of rotavirus strains in many developing countries, where most rotavirus deaths occur, could represent a significant challenge to the efficacy of current vaccines. In anticipation of rotavirus vaccine introduction, we examined studies published over a 10-year period (1997-2006) from countries in Africa that examined the distribution of VP7 (G) and VP4 (P) rotavirus strain types in symptomatic children and in neonates, together with studies that undertook a more detailed characterization of unusual rotavirus strains. Compared with recently published global reviews of rotavirus strain types and a previous review of the African literature published before 1997, the current data indicate a substantially increased diversity of rotavirus strains across the continent. Notable findings included a reduction in the proportion of globally common serotypes; a high proportion of unusual P/G combinations, suggesting viral reassortment; evidence for zoonotic rotavirus transmission; the emergence and spread across Africa of serotype G9; and a high prevalence of the P[6] VP4 genotype. These data imply that rotavirus vaccines will need to confer protection against a wide variety of strain types in Africa and emphasize the importance of continued strain surveillance before and after the introduction of routine rotavirus vaccination.