Agroforestry practices can improve the adaptive capacity and resilience of local farming and subsistence systems while providing livelihood benefits to households. However, scaling up of agroforestry technology has often proved difficult. Many studies have been carried out to explain the lack of tangible impact, based mainly on formal household/farm surveys comparing characteristics of non-adopters with that of adopters. In this study, we mapped the relationship between agroforestry tree survival in villages that were a part of the Vi Agroforestry project in the Mara region, Tanzania with key social-ecological variables. A random sample of 21 households from each of 89 investigated project villages was used. The proportion of households with surviving agroforestry trees, varied from 10%-90% among villages. Social and ecological differences between villages were important explanations to this variation. Variables related to the project and its operations explained most of the inter-village variation in households with few surviving trees. To encourage the majority of village households to practice agroforestry their perceptions of tree ownership and the benefit of agroforestry were additional key factors to the project showing the importance of socio-cultural issues to the households' decisions to continue beyond the initial tree planting and testing phase. OPEN ACCESSSustainability 2013, 5 5172
Non-governmental organizations (NGO) and government donor agencies (GDA) are often caught in a dilemma; an NGO between responsiveness to its target group(s), expectations of individual donors and demands of its GDA; GDA between its policy to respect NGO's integrity, its wish to keep NGOs accountable for received fund and its operation within the bounds of its general policies. This dilemma is mirrored in the NGO-GDA negotiation for funds. Based on negotiation theory and using three explanatory approaches, 18 years of negotiations between an NGO, Vi Skogen (ViS) and its GDA, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), are analyzed in order to demonstrate how organizational structures, power relations and the context influence the outcome of the negotiations. All three approaches help to explain how ViS managed, mainly in the interest of its individual donors, to resist changes demanded by Sida and also to explain how the agendas of ViS and Sida finally converged.Résumé Les organisations non gouvernementales (ONG) et les organismes donateurs gouvernementaux (ODG) sont souvent pris dans un dilemme : pour les ONG, satisfaire à la réactivité pour leur (s) groupe (s) cibles (s), aux attentes des donateurs individuels et aux exigences de l'organisme donateur gouvernemental auxquelles elles sont rattachées; pour les ODG, mettre en oeuvre leur politique visant à respecter l'intégrité des ONG, obtenir que les ONG rendent compte des fonds qui leur sont versés, et mener leurs opérations dans les limites de leur politique géné-rale. Ce dilemme se retrouve dans les négociations pour l'attribution des fonds entre ONG et ODG. À partir de la théorie de la négociation et en utilisant trois approches explicatives, nous analysons dix-huit ans de négociation entre Vi Skogen (ViS), une ONG, et Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida, l'agence suédoise de coopération au développement international), l'organisme donateur gouvernemental dont elle dépend, afin de démontrer comment les structures organisationnelles, les rapports de force et le contexte pèsent sur le résultat des négociations. Ces trois approches contribuent à expliquer comment ViS a réussi, principalement dans l'intérêt de ses donateurs individuels, à résister aux changements demandés par Sida, et comment les programmes de ces deux entités ont fini par se rejoindre.Zusammenfassung Nicht-staatliche Organisationen und staatliche Spendenorganisationen stecken oftmals in einem Dilemma; die nicht-staatlichen Organisationen stehen zwischen ihrer Ansprechbarkeit gegenüber ihren Zielgruppen, den Erwartungen individueller Spender und den Forderungen ihrer staatlichen Spendenorganisationen; die staatlichen Spendenorganisationen stehen zwischen ihrem Grundsatz, die Integrität der nicht-staatlichen Organisationen zu respektieren, ihrem Wunsch, die nicht-staatlichen Organisationen für erhaltene Mittel zur Rechenschaft zu ziehen und ihrer Tätigkeit, welche innerhalb der Schranken ihrer allgemeinen Richtlinien zu erfolgen hat. Dieses Dilemma spiege...
Agroforestry is considered a subsistence system that balances the urgent need for food and income of small scale farmers with restoration and conservation of ecosystem services, and climate change adaptation and mitigation. The Vi Agroforestry Program aims to implement agroforestry as a means to alleviate poverty and increase resilience among the poorest smallholders. After seven years, the Vi Agroforestry Project in the Mara Region of Tanzania had an inter-village variation in the proportion of households with tangible surviving agroforestry trees ranging from 10%-90%. Using a multiple methods approach, this variation was analysed in relation to changes and differences among administrative districts and project zones regarding perceived barriers to agroforestry adoption, project interventions, governance and the chronology of the process. In districts and zones where collaboration among the project staff, government counterparts and other stakeholders had been established at multiple levels, more agroforestry trees survived and a OPEN ACCESSSustainability 2013, 5 5196 larger proportion of households practiced agroforestry. The established collaboration made it possible to discover and consider opportunities and barriers to agroforestry development such as diverse stakeholder interests and perceptions. As a result, potential conflicts could be avoided and socially robust solutions developed, adapted and integrated into the local subsistence systems.
In nearly all parts of the world, an important part of people’s livelihood is derived from natural resources. Gender is considered one of the most important determinants of access and control over forests. It is thought that women and men within households and communities have different opportunities and different roles and responsibilities in relation to forest use. It is probable that when women have equal access to forests, better food security outcomes can be achieved for individuals and households that are dependent on forests for their livelihoods. A systematic evidence map of the evidence base linking gender with access to forests and use of forest resources for food security was undertaken. Ten bibliographic databases and 22 websites of international development and conservation organisations were searched using keywords suggested by stakeholders. Other articles were found by emailing authors and organisations to send potentially relevant publications. 19,500 articles were retrieved from bibliographic databases and 1281 from other sources. After iterative screening, 77 studies were included: 41 focussed on Africa, 22 on Asia, 12 on Latin America, 2 were global. Most indicators of food security measure access to food, measured by total consumption, expenditure, or income. Studies showed strong gender specialisation: commercial access and utilisation of forests and forest products dominated by men, whereas access for subsistence and household consumption is almost exclusively the task of women. Despite the large number of studies reviewed, limitations of the evidence base, including methodological heterogeneity, a dominance of case studies as the study design, and unequal geographical representation in study locations, make it difficult to generalise about the overall importance of gender and its effect on access to and use of forests for food security in developing countries. The critical gaps in the evidence base include geographical representation in primary research and a greater breadth of study designs to assess gender implications of access to forest resources globally.
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