Cardiac, respiratory, and behavioral patterns of elite (n = 15) and beginning (n = 15) golfers were monitored before and during the performance of six 4-ft and six 12-ft putts. In contrast to elite golfers, beginning golfers failed to demonstrate consistent behavioral preputt routines (e.g., number of practice swings, glances at hole). Elite golfers, compared to beginning golfers, exhibited significantly better putting performance at the 12-ft distance. Both elite and beginning golfers showed significantly decelerated heart rate during the 4- and 12-ft putts. Within four cardiac cycles before striking the ball, the interbeat interval significantly lengthened, indicating a decrease in heart rate. For the 12-ft putt, however, elite golfers in comparison to beginners recorded significantly slower heart rates for the interbeat intervals immediately before, during, and after ball strike.

The main purposes of this study were (a) to compare the effects of mental imagery combined with physical practise and specific physical practise on the retention and transfer of a closed motor skill in young children; (b) to determine the mental imagery (visual vs. kinesthetic), which is the most efficient for retention and transfer of a closed motor skill; and (c) to verify the relationship between movement image vividness and motor performance. As for the secondary purpose, it was to compare the effects of gender on motor learning. Participants (n = 96) were selected from 3 primary schools. These participants were divided into 6 groups and submitted to different experimental conditions. The experimental task required the participants to throw, with the nondominant hand (left hand), a ball toward a target composed of 3 concentric circles. The results demonstrated that performance obtained by the mental imagery (visual or kinesthetic) combined with physical practise group was, during the retention phase, equivalent to that produced by the specific physical practise group but significantly superior during the transfer of closed motor skill. These results showed the potential benefits of mental imagery as a retention strategy intended for motor skills and performance enhancement. Such results could be explained by the similarity of 3 principal functional evidences shared by mental and physical practise: behavioural, central, and peripheral (as suggested by Holmes & Collins, 2001).

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