Conflicting reports exist about the effect of N supply on the rate of leaf emergence. We examined effects of N deficiency on leaf and tiller emergence, tiller initiation and apical development in ‘Aroona’ and ‘Gamenya’ spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Four levels of N (e.g., 50 μM N = N50) were supplied by hourly irrigation with complete nutrient solution of plants growing in sand. The control plants in Exp. 1 (N1600) had 64 g kg‐1 N intheshoots at the two‐leaf stag e, compared with 33 in N50, 50 in N300, and 58 in N800. Compared with control plants, dry matter of N50 plants was 10%, N300 50%, and N800 80%. Results in Exp. 2 were similar. The rate of leaf emergence was decreased in all N50‐treated and some N200‐treated plants, but not or N300‐treated plants. Tiller bud initiation was decreased in the treatment. The number of tiller buds was correlated with total number of leaves; if a leaf emerged, N deficiency did not affect tiller initiation. Nitrogen treatment did not alter the sequence of tiller emergence, but tiller emergence was delayed or did not occur in N50, N200, and N300 plants. Nitrogen treatment had little effect on the rate of apical development. The double‐ridge stage of development was delayed ≈2 d for both cultivars at the two lowest N treatments. Terminal spikelet production was also delayed by ≈2 d at these N treatments in Aroona, but not in Gamenya spring wheat. The rate of primordia initiation was decreased in N50 and N300 plants, resulting in fewer spikelet primordia. The level of N deficiency affected plant response to the stress.

A common feature of many citizen science projects is the collection of data by unpaid contributors with the expectation that the data will be used in research. Here we report a teaching strategy that combined citizen science with inquiry-based learning to offer first year university students an authentic research experience. A six-year partnership with the Australian phenology citizen science program ClimateWatch has enabled biology students from the University of Western Australia to contribute phenological data on plants and animals, and to conduct the first research on unvalidated species datasets contributed by public and university participants. Students wrote scientific articles on their findings, peer-reviewed each other’s work and the best articles were published online in a student journal. Surveys of more than 1500 students showed that their environmental engagement increased significantly after participating in data collection and data analysis. However, only 31% of students agreed with the statement that “data collected by citizen scientists are reliable” at the end of the project, whereas the rate of agreement was initially 79%. This change in perception was likely due to students discovering erroneous records when they mapped data points and analysed submitted photographs. A positive consequence was that students subsequently reported being more careful to avoid errors in their own data collection, and making greater efforts to contribute records that were useful for future scientific research. Evaluation of our project has shown that by embedding a research process within citizen science participation, university students are given cause to improve their contributions to environmental datasets. If true for citizen scientists in general, enabling participants as well as scientists to analyse data could enhance data quality, and so address a key constraint of broad-scale citizen science programs.

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BackgroundHendra virus is a paramyxovirus that causes periodic serious disease and fatalities in horses and humans in Australia first identified in 1994. Pteropid bats (commonly known as flying-foxes) are the natural host of the virus, and the putative route of infection in horses is by ingestion or inhalation of material contaminated by flying-fox urine or other bodily fluids. Humans become infected after close contact with infected horses. Horse owners in Australia are encouraged to vaccinate their horses against Hendra virus to reduce the risk of Hendra virus infection, and to prevent potential transmission to humans. After the vaccine was released in 2012, uptake by horse owners was slow, with some estimated 11-17% of horses in Australia vaccinated. This study was commissioned to examine barriers to vaccine uptake and potential drivers to future adoption of vaccination by horse owners.MethodsThis study examined qualitative comments from respondents to an on-line survey, reporting reasons for not vaccinating their horses. The study also investigated scenarios in which respondents felt they might consider vaccinating their horses.ResultsSelf-reported barriers to uptake of the Hendra virus vaccine by horse owners (N = 150) included concerns about vaccine safety, cost, and effectiveness. Reduction in vaccination costs and perception of immediacy of Hendra virus risk were reported as being likely to change future behaviour. However, the data also indicated that horse owners generally would not reconsider vaccinating their horses if advised by their veterinarian.ConclusionWhile changes to vaccine costs and the availability data supporting vaccine safety and efficacy may encourage more horse owners to vaccinate, this study highlights the importance of protecting the relationship between veterinarians and horse owners within the risk management strategies around Hendra virus. Interactions and trust between veterinarians and animal owners has important implications for management of and communication around Hendra virus and other zoonotic disease outbreaks.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-017-1006-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

This paper examines the effect of a podcasting task on the examination performance of several hundred first-year chemistry undergraduate students. Educational researchers have established that a deep approach to learning that promotes active understanding of meaning can lead to better student outcomes, higher grades and superior retention of knowledge over time. We attempted to promote such an approach by setting a task that involved student collaboration, contextualisation of content, and communication through new media, specifically creative podcasting.

Factors that influence reception and use of information are represented in this koru model of science communication using the metaphor of a growing plant. Identity is central to this model, determining whether an individual attends to information, how it is used and whether access to it results in increased awareness, knowledge or understanding, changed attitudes or behaviour. In this koru model, facts are represented as nutrients in the soil; the matrix influences their availability. Communication involves reorganisation of facts into information, available via channels represented as roots. When information is taken up, engagement with it is influenced by external factors (social norms, support and control) and internal factors (values, beliefs, attitudes, awareness, affect, understanding, skills and behaviour) which affect whether the individual uses it to form new knowledge. AbstractPublic engagement with science and technology; Science communication: theory and models Keywords ContextScience communication is like gardening. Many can do it, but to become adept one needs to be interested, be willing to learn from others and gain experience, to have a plan, be prepared to experiment, occasionally fail and learn from failure and to reflect on outcomes. It is useful to recognise that there are differences between a novice's enthusiastic attempts and those of a professional. That is not to say that novices cannot produce good outcomes. But all science communicators can benefit from an understanding of key principles and reflection about the craft. And all science communicators can improve with increased understanding of how people receive and use information.This essay presents an integrated model of science communication, drawing from a wide range of disciplines and literature. The model builds on previous models of science communication which focus on the flow of information. This model adds factors that influence an individual's response to information and its use.

A concern commonly raised in the literature and in the media relates to the declining proportions of students who enter and remain in the "science pipeline," and whether many countries, including Australia and New Zealand, have enough budding scientists to fill research and industry positions in the coming years. In addition, there is concern that insufficient numbers of students continue in science to ensure an informed, scientifically literate citizenry. The aim of the research presented in this paper was to survey current Australian and New Zealand scientists to explore their reasons for choosing to study science. An online survey was conducted via a link to SurveyGizmo. The data presented are from 726 respondents who answered 22 forced-choice items and an open-ended question about the reasons they chose to study science. The quantitative data were analysed using t-tests and analyses of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan's multiple range tests, and the qualitative data were analysed thematically. The quantitative data showed that the main reasons scientists reported choosing to study science were because they were interested in science and because they were good at science. Secondary school science classes and one particular science teacher also were found to be important factors. Of much less importance were the prestige of science and financial considerations. The qualitative data expanded on these findings and showed that passion for science and/or curiosity about the world were important factors and also highlighted the importance of recreational pursuits, such as camping when a child.In the words of one respondent, "People don't go into science for the money and glory. It's passion for knowledge and science that always attracted me to the field". Research Rationale: Choosing ScienceOver the last decades, a plethora of reports and position papers have been released arguing the importance of science education, not only because a continuing supply of science, mathematics, engineering and technology (STEM) workers are required to fill positions in research and industry, but because there is an increasing need for citizens to have sufficient understanding of the science-related complexities of their everyday lives to participate in decision-making about various local and global issues. Some of the well-cited reports include