Research on women's preponderance among animal rights advocates explains it exclusively as a product of women's socialization, emphasizing a relational orientation of care and nurturing that extends to animals. The authors propose a more structural explanation: Women's experiences with structural oppression make them more disposed to egalitarian ideology, which creates concern for animal rights. Using data from a 1993 national sample, the authors find that an egalitarian gender ideology is a key difference in women's and men's routes to animal rights advocacy: It differentiates those more likely to endorse animal rights among women but not among men. Neither this ideology nor other variables in the analysis, however, account for women's greater overall support of animal rights in the combined sample. Reasons for this latter finding are explored.
Social-control-based deviance theories highlight parental bonding as a protective factor for problem behaviors in that bonds are viewed as reflecting the adolescent's adoption of conventional societal attitudes and values. Developmental theory and research suggest an alternative conceptualization of the linkages between family bonding and adolescent risk behaviors. This conceptualization requires concurrent examination of a range of adolescent competencies as well as consideration of parent and peer contexts. Support is found for several hypotheses derived from a developmental approach proposing: (a) positive associations between adolescent-parent attachment and adolescent competencies--autonomy, peer relationship competency, and coping; (b) coherence in the pattern of negative associations between attachment/competencies and substance use problems; and (c) a disjunctive pattern of associations with substance use reflected by positive associations with peer competencies but not with parental attachment.
Support from a campus recovery program is essential for many recovering students. There are a variety of recovery program components that can foster the sense of community that was so important to the students in this study.
Following a 2-min exposure to 5-6"C, neonatal rats emit ultrasounds for about 5 min, resulting in effective maternal care. Five minutes of 5 6°C causes prolonged ultrasonic vocalizations and correlated agitation in the mothers. The nonlinear effects of variable intensities of neonatal stimulation appear to be related to these differences in maternal behavior.Experimental investigations of the effects of infantile stimulation upon subsequent development of mammals have been reviewed by Levine (1962), Schaefer (1968, Denenberg and Zarrow (1971), andRussell (1971). The considerable body of evidence reviewed by these investigators indicates that such infantile stimulation as handling, electric shock, cold stress, shaking, and similar procedures are potent variables for modifying the developing morphology, physiology, and behavior of mammals. (Most of the research has been conducted using rodents. The relatively few extant studies using more complex species report similar findings.) Most of the developmental changes which have been shown to be modifiable by the above-specified early experiences can be classified as involving one or more of the following classes of dependent variables: growth rate, responsiveness to stressors, resistance to physiological insult (e.g., disease, toxins, starvation), and emotionality. (See Denenberg & Zarrow for a review of specific endpoints.) Regardless of the type of stimulation employed-handling, shock, cold stress, vibration-the effects appear to be similar, both in terms of endpoints affected and in terms of the quantitative characteristics of the endpoints. When the dimension of intensity of early experience has been manipulated it is characteristically the "mild or intermediate" intensity whch produces the greatest effect when compared to unstimulated controls, rather than the extreme intensities (Denenberg, 1964).Whereas the effects of early experience have been relatively well documented, little agreement has evolved about the mediating mechanism(s) underlying the phenomena.
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