Messenger RNA degradation represents a critical regulated step in gene expression. While the major pathways in turnover have been identified, accounting for disparate half-lives has been elusive. We show that codon optimality is one feature that contributes greatly to mRNA stability. Genome-wide RNA decay analysis revealed that stable mRNAs are enriched in codons designated optimal, whereas unstable mRNAs contain predominately non-optimal codons. Substitution of optimal codons with synonymous, non-optimal codons results in dramatic mRNA destabilization, while the converse substitution significantly increases stability. Further, we demonstrate that codon optimality impacts ribosome translocation, connecting the processes of translation elongation and decay through codon optimality. Finally, we show that optimal codon content accounts for the similar stabilities observed in mRNAs encoding proteins with coordinated physiological function. This work demonstrates that codon optimization exists as an mechanism to finely tune levels of mRNAs, and ultimately, proteins.

Summary Generation of the “epitranscriptome” through post-transcriptional ribonucleoside modification embeds a layer of regulatory complexity into RNA structure and function. Here we describe N4-acetylcytidine (ac4C) as an mRNA modification that is catalyzed by the acetyltransferase NAT10. Transcriptome-wide mapping of ac4C revealed discretely acetylated regions that were enriched within coding sequences. Ablation of NAT10 reduced ac4C detection at the mapped mRNA sites and was globally associated with target mRNA down-regulation. Analysis of mRNA half-lives revealed a NAT10-dependent increase in stability in the cohort of acetylated mRNAs. mRNA acetylation was further demonstrated to enhance substrate translation in vitro and in vivo. Codon content analysis within ac4C peaks uncovered a biased representation of cytidine within wobble sites that was empirically determined to influence mRNA decoding efficiency. These findings expand the repertoire of mRNA modifications to include an acetylated residue and establish a role for ac4C in the regulation of mRNA translation.

Summary A major determinant of mRNA half-life is the codon-dependent rate of translational elongation. How the processes of translational elongation and mRNA decay communicate is unclear. Here we establish that the DEAD-box protein Dhh1p is a sensor of codon optimality that targets an mRNA for decay. First, we find mRNAs whose translation elongation rate is slowed by inclusion of nonoptimal codons are specifically degraded in a Dhh1p-dependent manner. Biochemical experiments show Dhh1p is preferentially associated with mRNAs with suboptimal codon choice. We find these effects on mRNA decay are sensitive to the number of slow moving ribosomes on an mRNA. Moreover, we find Dhh1p overexpression leads to the accumulation of ribosomes specifically on mRNAs (and even codons) of low codon optimality. Lastly, Dhh1p physically interacts with ribosomes in vivo. Together, these data argue that Dhh1p is a sensor for ribosome speed, targeting an mRNA for repression and subsequent decay.

SummaryTranslation and decay of eukaryotic mRNAs is controlled by shortening of the poly(A) tail and release of the poly(A)-binding protein Pab1/PABP. The Ccr4-Not complex contains two exonucleases—Ccr4 and Caf1/Pop2—that mediate mRNA deadenylation. Here, using a fully reconstituted biochemical system with proteins from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, we show that Pab1 interacts with Ccr4-Not, stimulates deadenylation, and differentiates the roles of the nuclease enzymes. Surprisingly, Pab1 release relies on Ccr4 activity. In agreement with this, in vivo experiments in budding yeast show that Ccr4 is a general deadenylase that acts on all mRNAs. In contrast, Caf1 only trims poly(A) not bound by Pab1. As a consequence, Caf1 is a specialized deadenylase required for the selective deadenylation of transcripts with lower rates of translation elongation and reduced Pab1 occupancy. These findings reveal a coupling between the rates of translation and deadenylation that is dependent on Pab1 and Ccr4-Not.

Control of messenger RNA (mRNA) decay rate is intimately connected to translation elongation, but the spatial coordination of these events is poorly understood. The Ccr4-Not complex initiates mRNA decay through deadenylation and activation of decapping. We used a combination of cryo–electron microscopy, ribosome profiling, and mRNA stability assays to examine the recruitment of Ccr4-Not to the ribosome via specific interaction of the Not5 subunit with the ribosomal E-site in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This interaction occurred when the ribosome lacked accommodated A-site transfer RNA, indicative of low codon optimality. Loss of the interaction resulted in the inability of the mRNA degradation machinery to sense codon optimality. Our findings elucidate a physical link between the Ccr4-Not complex and the ribosome and provide mechanistic insight into the coupling of decoding efficiency with mRNA stability.

SUMMARYTissue-specific mRNA stability is important for cell fate and physiology, but the mechanisms involved are not fully understood. We found that zygotic mRNA stability in Drosophila correlates with codon content: optimal codons are enriched in stable transcripts associated with metabolic functions like translation, while non-optimal codons are enriched in unstable transcripts, including those associated with neural development. Bioinformatic analyses and reporter assays revealed that similar codons stabilize or destabilize mRNAs in the nervous system and other tissues, but the link between codon content and stability is attenuated in the nervous system. We confirmed that optimal codons are decoded by abundant tRNAs while non-optimal codons are decoded by less abundant tRNAs in embryos and in the nervous system. We conclude that codon optimality is a general determinant of zygotic mRNA stability, and attenuation of codon optimality allows trans-acting factors to exert greater influence over mRNA decay in the nervous system.

In late 2019, a novel coronavirus named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) emerged in Wuhan, China. SARS‐CoV‐2 and the disease it causes, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), spread rapidly and became a global pandemic in early 2020. SARS‐CoV‐2 spike protein is responsible for viral entry and binds to angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on host cells, making it a major target of the immune system – particularly neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) that are induced by infection or vaccines. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membraned particles constitutively released by cells, including virally‐infected cells. EVs and viruses enclosed within lipid membranes share some characteristics: they are small, sub‐micron particles and they overlap in cellular biogenesis and egress routes. Given their shared characteristics, we hypothesized that EVs released from spike‐expressing cells could carry spike and serve as decoys for anti‐spike nAbs, promoting viral infection. Here, using mass spectrometry and nanoscale flow cytometry (NFC) approaches, we demonstrate that SARS‐CoV‐2 spike protein can be incorporated into EVs. Furthermore, we show that spike‐carrying EVs act as decoy targets for convalescent patient serum‐derived nAbs, reducing their effectiveness in blocking viral entry. These findings have important implications for the pathogenesis of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in vivo and highlight the complex interplay between viruses, extracellular vesicles, and the immune system that occurs during viral infections.

Control of mRNA decay rate is intimately connected to translation elongation but the spatial coordination of these events is poorly understood. The Ccr4-Not complex initiates mRNA decay through deadenylation and activation of decapping. Using a combination of cryo-electron microscopy, ribosome profiling and mRNA stability assays we show recruitment of Ccr4-Not to the ribosome via specific interaction of the Not5 subunit with the ribosomal E-site. This interaction only occurs when the ribosome lacks accommodated A-site tRNA, indicative of low codon optimality. Loss of Not5 results in the inability of the mRNA degradation machinery to sense codon optimality. Our analysis elucidates a physical link between the Ccr4-Not complex and the ribosome providing mechanistic insight into the coupling of decoding efficiency with mRNA stability.