Nanomaterials (NM) exhibit novel physicochemical properties that determine their interaction with biological substrates and processes. Three metal oxides nanoparticles that are currently being produced in high tonnage, TiO2, ZnO and CeO2, were synthesized by flame spray pyrolysis process and compared in a mechanistic study to elucidate the physicochemical characteristics that determine cellular uptake, subcellular localization, and toxic effects based on a test paradigm that was originally developed for oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in RAW 264.7 and BEAS-2B cell lines. ZnO induced toxicity in both cells, leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidant injury, excitation of inflammation and cell death. Using ICP-MS and fluorescent-labeled ZnO, it is found that ZnO dissolution could happen in culture medium and endosomes. Non-dissolved ZnO nanoparticles enter caveolae in BEAS-2B, but enter lysosomes in RAW 264.7 cells in which smaller particle remnants dissolve. In contrast, fluorescent-labeled CeO2 nanoparticles were taken up intact into caveolin-1 and LAMP-1 positive endosomal compartments, respectively, in BEAS-2B and RAW 264.7 cells, without inflammation or cytotoxicity. Instead, CeO2 suppressed ROS production and induced cellular resistance to an exogenous source of oxidative stress. Fluorescent-labeled TiO2 was processed by the same uptake pathways as CeO2 but did not elicit any adverse or protective effects. These results demonstrate that metal oxide nanoparticles induce a range of biological responses that vary from cytotoxic to cytoprotective and can only be properly understood by using a tiered test strategy such as we developed for oxidative stress and adapted to study other aspects of nanoparticle toxicity.

Drug delivery, magnetic resonance and fluorescence imaging, magnetic manipulation, and cell targeting are simultaneously possible using a multifunctional mesoporous silica nanoparticle. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanocrystals were encapsulated inside mesostructured silica spheres that were labeled with fluorescent dye molecules and coated with hydrophilic groups to prevent aggregation. Water-insoluble anticancer drugs were delivered into human cancer cells; surface conjugation with cancer-specific targeting agents increased the uptake into cancer cells relative to that in non-cancerous fibroblasts. The highly versatile multifunctional nanoparticles could potentially be used for simultaneous imaging and therapeutic applications.

Surface-functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNP) can be used as an efficient and safe carrier for bioactive molecules. In order to make the MSNP a more efficient delivery system, we modified the surface of the particles by a functional group that enhances cellular uptake and allows nucleic acid delivery in addition to traditional drug delivery. Non-covalent attachment of polyethyleneimine (PEI) polymers to the surface not only increases MSNP cellular uptake, but also generates a cationic surface to which DNA and siRNA constructs could be attached. While efficient for intracellular delivery of these nucleic acids, the 25 KD PEI polymer unfortunately changes the safety profile of the MSNP that is otherwise very safe. By experimenting with several different polymer molecular weights, it was possible to retain high cellular uptake and transfection efficiency while reducing or even eliminating cationic MSNP cytotoxicity. The particles coated with the 10 KD PEI polymer was particularly efficient for transducing HEPA-1 cells with a siRNA construct that was capable of knocking down GFP expression. Similarly, transfection of a GFP plasmid induced effective expression of the fluorescent protein in > 70% cells in the population. These outcomes were quantitatively assessed by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. We also demonstrated that the enhanced cellular uptake of the non-toxic cationic MSNP enhance the delivery of the hydrophobic anticancer drug, paclitaxel, to pancreatic cancer cells. In summary, we demonstrate that by a careful selection of PEI size, it is possible to construct cationic MSNP that are capable of nucleotide and enhanced drug delivery with minimal or no cytotoxicity. This novel use of a cationic MSNP extends its therapeutic use potential.

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are a promising material for drug delivery. In this Full Paper, MSNs are first shown to be well tolerated, as demonstrated by serological, hematological, and histopathological examinations of blood samples and mouse tissues after MSN injection. Biodistribution studies using human cancer xenografts are carried out with in vivo imaging and fluorescent microscopy imaging, as well as with inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. The results show that MSNs preferentially accumulate in tumors. Finally, the drug-delivery capability of MSNs is demonstrated by following tumor growth in mice treated with camptothecin-loaded MSNs. These results indicate that MSNs are biocompatible, preferentially accumulate in tumors, and effectively deliver drugs to the tumors and suppress tumor growth.

Special delivery: The hydrophobic anticancer drug camptothecin was incorporated into fluorescent mesoporous silica nanoparticles (see image) and delivered to various cancer cells to induce cell death. These results suggest a method to overcome the insolubility problem of many anticancer drugs, which is considered to be one of the major challenges in cancer therapy.

Overexpression of drug efflux transporters such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) protein is one of the major mechanisms for multiple drug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells. A new approach to overcome MDR is to use a co-delivery strategy that utilizes a siRNA to silence the expression of efflux transporter together with an appropriate anti-cancer drug for drug resistant cells. In this paper, we report that mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNP) can be functionalized to effectively deliver a chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (Dox) as well as Pgp siRNA to a drug-resistant cancer cell line (KB-V1 cells) to accomplish cell killing in an additive or synergistic fashion. The functionalization of the particle surface with a phosphonate group allows electrostatic binding of Dox to the porous interior, from where the drug could be released by acidification of the medium under abiotic and biotic conditions. In addition, phosphonate modification also allows exterior coating with the cationic polymer, polyethylenimine (PEI), which endows the MSNP contemporaneously deliver Pgp siRNA. The dual delivery of Dox and siRNA in KB-V1 cells was capable of increasing the intracellular as well as intranuclear drug concentration to levels exceeding that of free Dox or the drug being delivered by MSNP in the absence of siRNA co-delivery. These results demonstrate that it is possible to use the MSNP platform to effectively deliver a siRNA that knocks down gene expression of a drug exporter that can be used to improve drug sensitivity to a chemotherapeutic agent.

The exponential increase in the number of new nanomaterials that are being produced increases the likelihood of adverse biological effects in humans and the environment. In this study we compared the effects of cationic nanoparticles in five different cell lines that represent portal-of-entry or systemic cellular targets for engineered nanoparticles. Although 60 nm NH(2)-labeled polystyrene (PS) nanospheres were highly toxic in macrophage (RAW 264.7) and epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells, human microvascular endothelial (HMEC), hepatoma (HEPA-1), and pheochromocytoma (PC-12) cells were relatively resistant to particle injury. While the death pathway in RAW 264.7 cells involves caspase activation, the cytotoxic response in BEAS-2B cells is more necrotic in nature. Using fluorescent-labeled NH(2)-PS, we followed the routes of particle uptake. Confocal microscopy showed that the cationic particles entered a LAMP-1 positive lysosomal compartment in RAW 264.7 cells from where the particles could escape by lysosomal rupture. A proton pump inhibitor interfered in this pathway. Subsequent deposition of the particles in the cytosol induced an increase in mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake and cell death that could be suppressed by cyclosporin A (CsA). In contrast, NH(2)-PS toxicity in BEAS-2B cells did not involve the LAMP-1 endosomal compartment, stimulation of proton pump activity, or an increase in mitochondrial Ca(2+). Particles were taken up by caveolae, and their toxicity could be disrupted by cholesterol extraction from the surface membrane. Although the particles induced mitochondrial damage and ATP depletion, CsA did not affect cytotoxicity. Cationic particles were taken up into HEPA-1, HMEC, and PC-12 cells, but this did not lead to lysosomal permeabilization, increased Ca(2+) flux, or mitochondrial damage. Taken together, the results of this study demonstrate the importance of cell-specific uptake mechanisms and pathways that could lead to sensitivity or resistance to cationic particle toxicity.

Time and time again humanity is faced with a unifying global crisis that crosses the many great divides in different societies and serves to bring once segregated communities back together as a collective whole. This global community instinctively turns to science to develop the means of addressing its most pressing problems. More often than not, these forces dictate the direction that scientific research takes. This influence is no more apparent than in the field of supramolecular chemistry where, for decades now, its responsibility to tackle such issues has been put on the back burner as a consequence of a lack of platforms with which to deliver this contemporary brand of chemistry to meaningful applications. However, the tide is slowly turning as new materials emerge from the field of nanotechnology that are poised to host the many attractive attributes that are inherent in the chemistry of these supermolecules and also in the mechanostereochemistry of mechanically interlocked molecules (MIMs), which can be reused as a sequel to supramolecular chemistry. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (SNPs) have proven to be supremely effective solid supports as their surfaces are easily functionalised with either supermolecules or MIMs. In turn, the blending of supramolecular chemistry and mechanostereochemistry with mesoporous SNPs has led to a new class of materials - namely, mechanised SNPs that are effectively biological nanoscale 'bombs' that have the potential to infiltrate cells and then, upon the pulling of a chemical trigger, explode! The development of these materials has been driven by the need to devise new therapies for the treatment of cancer. Recent progress in research promises not only to control the acuteness of this widespread and insidious disease, but also to make the harsh treatment less debilitating to patients. This global scourge is the unifying force that has brought together supramolecular chemistry, mechanostereochemistry and nanotechnology, uniting these three communities for the common good. At the nanoscale level, the mechanism for the release of cargos from the confines of the nanopores in the SNPs is accomplished by way of mechanical modifications made on the surface of these functionalised supports. These mechanical motions rely on both supramolecular, i.e., host-guest complexes, and mechanostereochemical phenomena (e.g., bistable rotaxanes), which are often stimulated by changes in pH, light and redox potentials, in addition to enzymatic catalysis. The future of this field lies in the development of 'smart bombs' wherein the loaded mechanised SNPs are endocytosed selectively by cancer cells, whereupon an intracellular trigger causes release of a cytotoxin, effectively leading to apoptosis. This review serves to highlight (1) the evolution of surface-functionalisation of SNPs with supermolecules and also with MIMs, (2) the mechanisms through which controlled-release of cargo from mechanised SNPs occurs, and (3) results from the in vitro application of these mechanised SNPs.