Meat products are sources of protein with high biological value and an essential source of other nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals. Heating processes cause food to become more appetizing with changes in texture, appearance, flavor, and chemical properties by the altering of protein structure and other ingredients. During heat treatment, heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), potent mutagens/carcinogens, are formed due to the Maillard reaction. The HAAs are classified in at least 2 groups: thermic HAAs (100 to 300°C) and pyrolytic HAAs (>300°C). This review focuses on the parameters and precursors which affect the formation of HAAs: preparation, such as the marinating of meat, and cooking methods, including temperature, duration, and heat transfer, as well as levels of precursors. Additionally, factors are described subject to pH, and the type of meat and ingredients, such as added antioxidants, types of carbohydrates and amino acids, ions, fat, and other substances inhibiting or enhancing the formation of HAAs. An overview of the different analytical methods available is shown to determine the HAAs, including their preparation to clean up the sample prior to extraction. Epidemiological results and human daily intake of HAAs obtained from questionnaires show a relationship between the preference for very well-done meat products with increased HAA levels and an enhanced risk of the incidence of cancer, besides other carcinogens in the diet. The metabolic pathway of HAAs is governed by the activity of several enzymes leading to the formation of DNA adducts or HAA excretion and genetic sensitivity of individuals to the impact of HAAs on human cancer risk.
In this study we investigated the effect of droplet size on the antimicrobial activity of emulsions containing two essential oil compounds that are known for their antimicrobial effectiveness: carvacrol and eugenol. Coarse emulsions were prepared by blending a triacylglyceride (Miglyol 812N) containing various concentrations of carvacrol or eugenol (5, 15, 30, 50 wt%) at an oil droplet mass fraction of 10 wt% with an aqueous phase containing 2 wt% Tween 80(®). Premixes were then further dispersed using a high shear blender, a high pressure homogenizer at different pressures or an ultrasonicator to produce droplets with a variety of mean diameters. Microscopy and light scattering storage stability studies over 10 days indicated that manufactured emulsions were stable, i.e. that no aggregation, creaming or other destabilization mechanisms occurred and droplet size distributions remained unchanged. The antimicrobial activity of emulsions was assessed against two model microorganisms, the Gram negative Escherichia coli C 600 and the Gram positive Listeria innocua, by determining growth over time behavior. The analysis yielded the unexpected result that emulsions with larger droplet sizes were more effective at inhibiting growth and inactivating cells than smaller ones. For example, emulsions with a mean oil droplet size of 3000 nm at a concentration of 800 ppm carvacrol completely inhibited L. innocua, while for 80 nm emulsions, only a delay of growth could be observed. Measurements of the concentration of the antimicrobial compounds in the aqueous phase indicated that concentrations of eugenol and carvacrol decreased with decreasing oil droplet sizes. Determination of interfacial tension further showed that eugenol and carvacrol are preferentially located in the oil-water interfaces. Theoretical calculations of Tween 80(®) concentrations needed to saturate interfaces suggested that in small emulsions for the given formulation less Tween 80(®) micelles are present in the aqueous phase. We therefore attribute the fact that antimicrobial nanoemulsions are less active than macroemulsions due to an increased sequestering of antimicrobials in emulsion interfaces and a decreased solubilization in excess Tween 80(®) micelles.
Polyphenolic grape seed extract (0.1 w/v%) was encapsulated in liposomes (1% soy lecithin) by high pressure homogenization at 22 500 psi. Liposomes containing grape extract had mean particle diameters of <100 nm compared to control liposomes that contained no extract and that had mean particle diameters of <40 nm. Liposomes with grape seed extract were long-term oxidatively stable, e.g. significantly less hexanal (<15 μmol L(-1)) was formed during storage for 150 days compared to liposomes without extract (>717 μmol L(-1)). Over 80% of the polyphenolic compounds in grape seed extract were incorporated into the liposomal membrane rather than into their interior and compounds remained integrated even if the system pH was changed. Coated liposomes were prepared by alternately adding a cationic polymer (chitosan) and an anionic polymer (citrus pectin). Up to 4 coats could be deposited onto the liposomes without incurring aggregation, i.e. dispersions were physically stable during storage for up to 150 days. Deposition of multiple biopolymer coats onto liposomes decreased the amount of polyphenols that reacted with the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, suggesting that the polyphenols were no longer exposed to the aqueous phase. Our results hence indicate that polymer-coated liposomes are highly capable carrier systems for polyphenols that may have reduced interactions with ingredients in complex media such as foods.
Effects of the application of oil marinades with garlic, onion, and lemon juice on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) in fried beef patties were investigated. Two different statistical design models were used. In the screening experiment, a significant inhibition of formation of MeIQx was determined only by addition of garlic (p < 0.05). When the amount of garlic was changed from 2 to 20 g/100 g of marinade, the estimated MeIQx content in patties was reduced about 70%. MeIQx (0.38-1.22 ng/g), 4,8-DiMeIQx (n.d.-0.45 ng/g), PhIP (n.d.-0.09 ng/g), norharman (0.76-13.5 ng/g), and harman (2.9-21.5 ng/g) were found in fried patties. The results of two-level and three-level fractional factorial design experiments confirmed the first investigation. They showed a stronger reduction in MeIQx in patties with the addition of increasing amounts of garlic (p < 0.01) and onion (p < 0.05) in marinades. A higher content of lemon juice in marinades led to only a marginal reduction in MeIQx (p > 0.05). The optimum amounts of onion, garlic, and lemon juice that achieved a maximum reduction of HAAs were calculated as 31.2%, 28.6%, and 14.6% in marinade.
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