To determine the daily energy requirement of elite synchronized swimmers during moderate-intensity training, the average daily energy expenditure measured by the doubly labeled water method, was calculated for nine female Japanese national team synchronized swimmers [four senior; mean (SD) 22.5 (1.0) years old, 52.2 (3.6) kg, and five junior; 17.6 (1.1) years old, 52.8 (2.3) kg]. Their total energy expenditure (TEE) was 11.5 (2.8) MJ x day(-1) [2738 (672) kcal day(-1)]. When compared with estimated energy requirements derived from "Recommended Dietary Allowances for the Japanese", 12.1 (0.6) MJ day(-1) [2897 (139) kcal day(-1)], there was no difference between mean actual and estimated energy requirements. However, there were considerable differences observed on an individual basis. Their energy intake, estimated from 7- day self-reported dietary records, was 8.9 (1.7) MJ day(-1) [2128 (395) kcal x day(-1)], which was significantly lower than their TEE (P<0.05). Resting energy expenditure (REE), as determined by indirect calorimetry, was 5.2 (0.3) MJ x day(-1) [1247 (75) kcal x day(-1)]. Their physical activity level (TEE/REE) was 2.18 (0.43). These results demonstrate that the TEE values of elite female synchronized swimmers are not dissimilar to those reported for athletes participating in other sports, especially competitive swimmers during moderate-intensity training.

This study aimed to assess kinematic and kinetic changes in front crawl with various stroke frequency (SF) conditions to investigate why swimming velocity (SV) does not increase above a certain SF (SFmax). Eight male swimmers performed 20 m front crawl four times. The first trial involved maximal effort, whereas SF was controlled during the next three trials. The instructed SFs were 100 (T100%), 110 (T110%), and 120% (T120%) of the SFmax. Through pressure measurement and underwater motion analysis, hand propulsive force (calculated by the difference between the palm and dorsal pressure value and the hand area) and the angle of attack of the hand were quantified, and differences between trials were assessed by a repeated-measures ANOVA. There was no difference in SV between the conditions, while the angle of attack during the latter half of the underwater stroke at T120% was smaller by 25.7% compared with T100% (p = 0.007). The lower angle of attack induced a lower pressure value on the palm that consequently caused a smaller hand propulsive force at T120% than T100% (p = 0.026).Therefore, the decrease in the angle of attack must be minimised to maintain the hand propulsive force.

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We investigated coaching points for the technique of the eggbeater kick in synchronized swimming. The movements of the eggbeater kick for six female synchronized swimmers, all the top-ranking members at the Olympics and World Championships, were analyzed by using three-dimensional motion analysis. By comparing the movements of higher eggbeater-skilled swimmers with lower eggbeater-skilled swimmers, the coaching points for techniques of the eggbeater kick in synchronized swimming are clarified as follows. First, to hold the knees as high and as near the water surface as possible and to keep the heels close to the hips. Secondly, to keep the knees as wide as possible. Thirdly, to kick sideways producing lift force, and not to kick downward. Fourthly, to pull up the heels to nearly the water surface at the out-kick, with strong internal rotation of the thighs. Lastly, to move the feet as if treading water, with strong dorsiflexion and plantar flexion and adduction of the foot; that is to move the feet like the motion of the hands when sculling. Moreover, the movements of higher eggbeater-skilled swimmers can be termed 'horizontal kick type' and the movements of lower eggbeater-skilled swimmers can be termed 'vertical kick type'.

This study is aimed at analysing the scientific literature related to physiological responses in synchronized swimmers, produced from 2006 to 2016. A systematic review was conducted using electronic databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, SportDiscus, Web Science, Scielo and Scopus) in national and international journals. The articles were selected using the following inclusion criteria: composed samples of synchronized swimmers of both sexes, articles in English, Spanish and Portuguese, published from 2006 to 2016. Ten studies were included. The concentration of the articles and their publication was as follows: Europe (77%) and North America (23%). The protocols used analyse physiological responses in synchronized swimmers athletes during competitions or laboratory tests, lactate measurements, heart rate, rates of perceived exertion, VO and lung volume. The subjects of 100% of the studies included in this review were athletes of junior and senior categories who volunteered. Only 03 of the 10 studies have compared the physiological responses in volunteers who were not synchronized swimmers to synchronized swimmer athletes. The studies were conducted using different methodologies, which makes it difficult to compare them, so the standardization of instruments and definitions is essential for the scientific advancement in this field. In addition, it would be interesting to expand the research of these physiological responses in synchronized swimmers using base level or beginners as sample.

The new chart provides useful information in the assessment of the body proportions of Japanese children.

This study aims at clarifying the factors responsible for the change in hand propulsive force when the stroke frequency was changed. Eight male swimmers performed five 20m-front crawls. The first trial involved maximal effort, whereas the stroke frequency was controlled during the next four trials. The instructed stroke frequencies were 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100% of the stroke frequency at the maximal effort trial. To calculate the hand