We analysed 10 years (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017) of continuous eddy covariance (EC) CO 2 flux measurements of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) in a young pedunculate oak forest in Croatia. Measured NEE was gap-filled and partitioned into gross primary productivity (GPP) and ecosystem reparation (R ECO ) using the online tool by Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena, Germany. Annual NEE, GPP, and R ECO were correlated with main environmental drivers. Net primary productivity was estimated from EC (NPP EC ), as a sum of −NEE and R h obtained using a constant R h :R ECO ratio, and from independent periodic biometric measurements (NPP BM ). For comparing the NPP at the seasonal level, we propose a simple model that aimed at accounting for late-summer and autumn carbon storage in the non-structural carbohydrate pool. Over the study period, Jastrebarsko forest acted as a carbon sink, with an average (±std. dev.) annual NEE of −319 (±94) gC m −2 year −1 , GPP of 1594 (±109) gC m −2 year −1 , and R ECO of 1275 (±94) gC m −2 year −1 . Annual NEE showed high inter-annual variability and poor correlation with annual average global radiation, air temperature, and total precipitation, but significant (R 2 = 0.501, p = 0.02) correlation with the change in soil water content between May and September. Comparison of annual NPP EC and NPP BM showed a good overall agreement (R 2 = 0.463, p = 0.03), although in all years NPP BM was lower than NPP EC , with averages of 680 (±88) gC m −2 year −1 and 819 (±89) gC m −2 year −1 , respectively. Lower values of NPP BM indicate that fine roots and grasses contributions to NPP, which were not measured in the study period, could have an important contribution to the overall ecosystem NPP. At a seasonal level, two NPP estimates showed differences in their dynamic, but the application of the proposed model greatly improved the agreement in the second part of the growing season. Further research is needed on the respiration partitioning and mechanisms of carbon allocation. IntroductionCurrently global forests store approximately 30% of total anthropogenic CO 2 emissions [1], however, the potential of forests to act as a carbon sink in the future is uncertain due to possible saturation effect [2], or negative impact of changed environmental conditions on forest productivity [3]. The eddy covariance (EC) technique is a widely used, state-of-the-art method, and it has become a standard in the estimation and monitoring of high frequency (typically half-hourly) carbon and water fluxes within terrestrial ecosystems [4]. Long-term data series of net ecosystem carbon exchange (NEE) or net ecosystem productivity (NEP, NEP = −NEE), in combination with meteorological and biometric measurements, provide invaluable information on the response of forest ecosystem to environmental conditions and climate change [5][6][7][8].EC data are essential for calibration of process-based models like Biome-BGC and its variants [9,10] and they are also used for calibration and testi...
Ongoing climate change may affect the susceptibility of plants to attacks by pathogenic, mostly mycotoxigenic fungi with a consequent increase in the presence of mycotoxins. Fusarium fungi represent one of the most important producers of mycotoxins, and are also important pathogens of agricultural crops. Therefore, the main aim of the study was to estimate the impact of weather parameters on the natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins B1 and B2 (FUMs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2, and HT-2 toxins (T-2/HT-2) in maize samples harvested from two neighboring countries, Serbia and Croatia, during a four-year production period (2018–2021). The frequency and contamination level of examined Fusarium mycotoxins varied by maize year of production and could be linked to weather conditions per investigated country. Among them, FUMs were found to be the most common contaminants (84–100%) of maize in both Serbia and Croatia. Additionally, a critical assessment of Fusarium mycotoxins occurrence in the last 10 years (2012–2021), for both Serbia and Croatia, was done. Results pointed out the highest contamination of maize from 2014, especially with DON and ZEN, in connection to extreme levels of precipitation observed in both Serbia and Croatia, whereas FUMs occurred with high prevalence from each of the ten investigated years.
During the last decade, scientists have given increasingly frequent warnings about global warming, linking it to mycotoxin-producing moulds in various geographical regions across the world. In the future, more pronounced climate change could alter host resilience and host–pathogen interaction and have a significant impact on the development of toxicogenic moulds and the production of their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins. The current climate attracts attention and calls for novel diagnostic tools and notions about the biological features of agricultural cultivars and toxicogenic moulds. Since European climate environments offer steadily rising opportunities for Aspergillus flavus growth, an increased risk of cereal contamination with highly toxic aflatoxins shall be witnessed in the future. On top of that, the profile (representation) of certain mycotoxigenic Fusarium species is changing ever more substantially, while the rise in frequency of Fusarium graminearum contamination, as a species which is able to produce several toxic mycotoxins, seen in northern and central Europe, is becoming a major concern. In the following paper, a high-quality approach to a preventative strategy is tailored to put a stop to the toxicogenic mould- and mycotoxin-induced contamination of foods and feeds in the foreseeable future.
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