[eng] Social justice, inequality, exclusion Mireille Elbaum Throughout the sixties and seventies in France, the question of ine- quality was at the very core of the social debate over the distribution of the fruits of growth. Since the beginning of the eighties, the very idea of combating inequality was however challenged and seen as inadequate, or even outmoded. New theoretical developments advanced concepts of justice which seemed to suggest a renewed consensus of opinion converging towards the notion of « equity », or which referred to complex and plural concepts of justice, born from the confrontation of diverse ways of reasoning. And the concomitant, often reductionist, re-interpretation indirectly resulted in a situation whereby the priority formerly given to the problem of inequa- lity within economic and social policies was abandoned. In this context, the attenuation of traditional disparities in income, property, and living conditions ceased in the eighties. The mechanisms guiding the reproduction of « social classifications » were hardly questio- ned, despite the upheaval which occured within professional and social structures. And the « democratisation » of education did not, in itself, have any significant effect on the « inequality of opportunities », in a context where the diploma as a criterion for entering the working world could only exacerbate expectations and frustrations vis-a-vis the school system. Above all, with the development of mass unemployment, problems of precarlousness and underemployment were thereafter presented as the main type of inequality afflicting French society. The growing awareness of the existence of « new forms of poverty », partially revealed by the « RMI » (French system of income support), contributed to challenging the global objective of combating inequality, and resulted in a more and more extensive, commonplace use of the notion of « exclusion », making the « fight against exclusion » a policy in itself, disassociated from the overall functioning of the society. Furthermore, the challenge to inequality was also set against a « necessity for economic efficiency » which, according to certain theories, called for a greater dispersion in salaries, and a system of benefits and witholdings that would not penalise increases in income. The pertinence of these theories is however questionable ; the link between social dispa- rities and economic performances has not been established, whether we consider a dispersion in salaries on the whole, the specific role of the minimum wage, or the effects of unemployment compensation and wel- fare benefits. It would appear dangerous, in France, to envisage an economic and social model based on an increase in disparities, with the risk of affecting the economy's global competitiveness, of developing poverty further and of pushing workers to opt for idleness when confronted with low wages, all in return for an only apparent decrease in unemployment. Even if new contours and new methods are needed, global policies to combat inequality mu...
Résumé Les indicateurs associés aux projets de loi de finances (PLF) et de financement de la sécurité sociale (PLFSS) sont emblématiques des tentatives réalisées pour apprécier les « performances » de l’action publique dans les domaines sanitaire et social. L’analyse transversale des listes d’indicateurs figurant dans lois financières votées pour 2009 montre que les premiers suscitent les doutes importants quant à leur pertinence et leur interprétabilité pour les politiques sociales. Les indicateurs annexés au PLFSS dans le cadre des « programmes de qualité et d’efficience » (PQE) présentent nettement plus d’intérêt et de cohérence, avec des aspects discutables tenant notamment au caractère « politique » de l’exercice. Ce recours aux indicateurs pour mesurer les « performances » des politiques sociales comporte en tout état de cause des limites, qui entraînent des besoins d’évaluation « pluridimensionnelle », et la nécessité d’une autonomie accrue par rapport aux décideurs.
Several changes occurred lately in the regulation of the French healthcare system: the public health insurance deficit has been reduced until 2008, the ratio of health expenditure as percentage of GDP has remained fairly stable, activity-based payments have been implemented in public and private hospitals, and the government tried to promote more coordination and better prescriptions among practitioners. These changes have nevertheless limited impacts, and do not concern the "heart" of economic regulation: the system of prices, fees and reimbursement remains unchanged, and health insurance deficits have been repeatedly funded by new specific taxes and decreases in reimbursement. The part of expenses left to complementary insurances and out-of-pocket spending is increasing for ambulatory care, and government policies claiming for more "responsibility" in the use of health care mainly apply to patients. As these problems remain unsolved, the French health system has to tackle major short and medium-term challenges: the consolidation of deficits linked or not to the economic crisis, the long-term trend of health care expenditures resulting from population ageing, and the necessity to improve the efficiency of the system in a way which does not increase inequities in health care access.
[eng] «Odd jobs»: more than a million people in 1987 - Part-time jobs, precarious ones under short-term contracts, occasional occupations, these kinds of « odd jobs » increased by 14.5 % between 1 983 and 1 987. Growth has been particularly strong for precarious jobs. About 1.2 million people had this type of jobs in March, 1987. . Nearly 60 % of these jobs are carried out during reduced but regular hours, most of them by women. 60 % of the precarious ones are held by workers, mostly young men. On the other hand, more than half of the occasional occupations are held by people aged fifty and over. . Half of those working at « odd jobs » hold no diploma beyond the primary leaving certificate. Wages are in general very low and for jobs on short-term contracts close to the minimum required (SMIC). Less than 20 % of the persons working very reduced hours claim to be looking for another type of employment, contrary to nearly 40 % of those who work on short- term contracts, and who are more ofter out of work. [spa] Nuevos contratos de fomento del empleo : más de un millón de activos en 1 987 . . Horarios reducidos, empleos precarios con contratos de corta duración, actividades es poredicas; el conjunto de esas nuevas actividades aumentó en un 14,5 % entre 1983 y 1987. El crecimiento fue particularmente importante para los empleos precarios. En total, cerca de 1,2 millones de activos ejercian ese tipo de trabajo en marzo de 1987. . Los horarios reducidos y regulares representan cerca del 60 %. Las mujeres son las que cumplen taies horarios en mayor proporción. Los obreros son quienes desempenan trabajos temporales en una proporción de cerca del 60 %; se trata, en una gran mayoria, de hombres y en especial de jóvenes. En cambio, mâs de la mitad de los trabajos esporádicos son hechos por adultos de 50 años o más. . La mitad de los que desempeñan estas actividades no tienen ningún otro diploma que el certificado de estudios primarios. Los salarios son, en general, muy bajos, cercanos al SMI en lo que respecta a los empleos temporales. Solo menos de un 20 % de las personas que tienen horarios reducidos declaran estar a la búsqueda de otro empleo. Por el contrario, los que tienen un contrato de corta duración llegan a representar casi un 40 % del total, estando también con mayor frecuencia en desempleo. [fre] Horaires réduits, emplois précaires à contrat court, activités épisodiques, l'ensemble de ces « petits boulots » a augmenté de 14,5 % entre 1 983 et 1 987. La croissance a été particulièrement vive pour les emplois précaires. Au total, environ 1,2 million d'actifs exercent un «petit boulot » en mars 1987. . Les horaires réduits et réguliers en représentent près de 60 %. Les femmes sont les plus nombreuses à les pratiquer. Les « petits boulots » temporaires sont occupés, pour près de 60 %, par des ouvriers. Ils sont majoritairement détenus par des hommes et en particulier par des jeunes. En revanche, plus de la moitié des travaux épisodiques sont réalisés par des personnes âgées de 50 ans ou plus. . La moitié de ceux qui ...
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.
hi@scite.ai
10624 S. Eastern Ave., Ste. A-614
Henderson, NV 89052, USA
Copyright © 2024 scite LLC. All rights reserved.
Made with 💙 for researchers
Part of the Research Solutions Family.