The retirement decisions of individuals are strongly influenced by spousal retirement, financial incentives and institutional constraints such as access to early retirement benefits. In the European Union (EU), farm retirement is encouraged by early retirement provisions for farmers. As exit from farming determines the characteristics of structural change in agriculture, it is important to find out how spousal retirement and economic incentives affect the timing and type of retirement decisions among elderly farmers. This paper analyses the timing of early retirement decisions of farming couples using duration analysis and different exit channels. The empirical analysis is based on Finnish farm-level panel data for the period 1993-1998. The results suggest that an expected pension particularly advances farm transfers. Farming couples are found to co-ordinate their early retirement decisions. However, farmers are not found to co-ordinate their early retirement according to spousal retirement under other pension schemes. Copyright 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

In free-range and organic production systems, hens can make choices according to their needs and desires, which is in accordance with welfare definitions. Nonetheless, health and behavioral problems are also encountered in these systems. The aim of this article was to identify welfare challenges observed in these production systems in the EU and the most promising solutions to overcome these challenges. It is based on a review of published literature and research projects complemented by interviews with experts. We selected EU specific information for welfare problems, however, the selected literature regarding solutions is global. Free range use may increase the risk of infection by some bacteria, viruses and parasites. Preventive methods include avoiding contamination thanks to biosecurity measures and strengthening animals' natural defenses against these diseases which can be based on nutritional means with new diet components such as insect-derived products, probiotics and prebiotics. Phytotherapy and aromatherapy can be used as preventive and curative medicine and vaccines as alternatives to antibiotics and pesticides. Bone quality in pullets and hens prevents keel deviations and is favored by exercise in the outdoor range. Free range use also lead to higher exposure to variable weather conditions and predators, therefore shadow, fences and guard animals can be used to prevent heat stress and predation respectively. Granting a free range provides opportunities for the expression of many behaviors and yet many hens usually stay close to the house. Providing the birds with trees, shelters or attractive plants can increase range use. Small flock sizes, early experiences of enrichment and personality traits have also been found to enhance range use. Severe feather pecking can occur in free range production systems, although flocks using the outdoor area have better plumage than indoors. While many prevention strategies are facilitated in free range systems, the influence of genetics, prenatal and nutritional factors in free range hens still need to be investigated. This review provides information about practices that have been tested or still need to be explored and this information can be used by stakeholders and researchers to help them evaluate the applicability of these solutions for welfare improvement.

This study estimates the value of farmers' stated succession plans in predicting revealed succession decisions. The stated succession plan exists when a farmer answers in a survey questionnaire that the farm is going to be transferred to a new entrant within a five year period. The succession is revealed when the farm is transferred to a successor. The stated and revealed behaviour is estimated as a recursive Binomial-ProbitModel, which accounts for censoring of the decision variables and controls for a potential correlation between the estimating equations. The results suggest that the succession plans, as stated by elderly farmers in the questionnaires, do not provide information that is significant and valuable in predicting the true, revealed successions, once certain farm and farmer characteristics are controlled for.

This study focussed on harmful exposures and mental and musculoskeletal symptoms in organic and conventional farming using interview data of Finnish farmers over the winter of 2014-2015. The data consisted of 2,169 full-time farmers, out of whom 231 (11%) practiced organic farming and 1,938 (89%) conventional farming. Exposure to poisonous and irritating substances was less frequent while exposures to vibration and mould ('smell of root cellar') were more frequent on organic farms. Mental and musculoskeletal symptoms were slightly more common among organic farmers, but the associations were not statistically significant in regression modelling. Risk factors for mental symptoms included animal production, hired labour, female gender, constant hurry, working alone, economic uncertainty, and inadequate recovery from workdays. Risk factors for musculoskeletal symptoms included older age, female gender, constant hurry, economic uncertainty, difficult working postures, heavy lifting and carrying, and inadequate recovery. Workload and recovery, managing the transition period and better follow-up of the occupational well-being were identified as concerns among organic farmers.Practitioner summary: Converting from conventional to organic farming has become increasingly common. Farmer interviews indicated that exposure to poisonous and irritating substances was less frequent while exposures to vibration and mould were more frequent on organic farms. Mental and musculoskeletal symptoms and risk factors were similar in both types of farming.

Organic farming is increasing in Finland, and organic farms have become larger than conventional farms, on average. As the structural change has been rapid, farmers need a broad range of new competencies to manage their farms, ranging from agronomic skills to advanced technology, labor management, and marketing skills. In this study, the characteristics of organic and conventional farms and farmers were assessed, with special focus on management practices and future development plans on organic farms. The study was based on telephone interviews of a sample of active farmers who applied for agricultural subsidies in 2014. The data consisted of 3045 farmers; 312 of them practiced organic farming and 2733 conventional farming. The data were analyzed using multivariable logistic regression. Having beef production as the main production line, having plans to develop farm production in the next 5 years, considering farm management as very important, and frequently experiencing mental strain because of farm management were significant predictors for being an organic farmer. Dairy production was less frequently organic compared to crop production. Nearly half (42%) of organic farmers planned to make changes in their farming, most commonly expanding their production. Thus, competence for managing the farm operation becomes more crucial, which increases the need for training and management consulting services. Organic farming may increase with both farm successions and new entrants joining the farming sector. Special attention should be paid to supporting these new entrants without farm-family background.