Observed SST anomaly (SSTA) in the equatorial eastern Pacific exhibits an asymmetric evolution characteristic between El Niño and La Niña. While El Niño is characterized by a rapid decay after its peak and a fast phase transition to a cold episode in the following winter, La Niña is characterized by a weaker decay after its peak and a reintensification of cold SSTA in the second year. The relative roles of dynamic (wind field) and thermodynamic (heat flux) processes in causing the asymmetric evolutions are investigated through a mixed layer heat budget analysis. The result shows both dynamic and thermodynamic processes contribute to the evolution asymmetry. The former is related to asymmetric wind responses in the western Pacific, whereas the latter is associated with asymmetric cloud–radiation–SST and evaporation–SST feedbacks. A strong negative SSTA tendency occurs during El Niño decaying phase, compared to a much weaker positive SSTA tendency during La Niña decaying phase. Such a difference leads to an SSTA sign change for El Niño but no sign change for La Niña by the end of summer of the second year. A season-dependent coupled instability kicks in during northern fall, leading to the development of a La Niña by end of the second year for El Niño, but the reoccurrence of a La Niña episode by end of the second year for La Niña. The overall heat budget analysis during the entire ENSO evolutions indicates the thermodynamic process is as important as the dynamic process in causing the El Niño–La Niña evolution asymmetry. The fundamental difference of the current result with previous theories is further discussed.

Using an ensemble of nine El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reconstructed proxies and volcano eruption proxies for the past 1500 years, this study shows that a significant La Niña state emerges in the second year (year (2) hereafter) after large tropical volcanic eruptions. The reasons for the development of La Niña are investigated using the Community Earth System Model (CESM). In the volcanic eruption experiment (Vol), a robust La Niña signal occurs in year (2), resembling the proxy records. The eastward positioning of the western North Pacific anomalous anticyclone (WNPAC) in Vol plays a critical role in the advanced decay of year (2) warming and the strong intensification of cooling in the equatorial eastern Pacific. The enhanced easterlies located on the southern edge of the WNPAC can stimulate consecutive oceanic upwelling Kelvin waves, shallowing the thermocline in the eastern Pacific, thereby resulting in a greater cooling rate by the enhanced thermocline feedback and cold zonal advection. Over the equatorial eastern Pacific, the reduced shortwave radiation contributes to the advanced decay of warming, while the upward latent heat flux augments the strong intensification of the cooling. Essentially, the eastward positioning of the WNPAC is a result of the volcanic forcing. The volcanic effect cools the maritime continent more than its adjacent oceans, thus pushing convective anomalies eastward during year (1). This induces vertical thermal advection and upward surface latent heat flux, thereby suppressing the development of warm Sea Surface Temperature over the central-western Pacific and causing the eastward positioning of the WNPAC in Vol.

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