Z (Glu342 --> Lys) and S(iiyama) (Ser53 --> Phe) genetic variations of human alpha1-antitrypsin (alpha1-AT) cause a secretion blockage in the hepatocytes, leading to alpha1-AT deficiency in the plasma. Using in vitro folding analysis, we have shown previously that these mutations interfere with the proper folding of polypeptides. To understand the fundamental cause for the secretion defect of the Z and S(iiyama) variants of alpha1-AT, we investigated in vivo folding and stability of these variant alpha1-AT using the secretion system of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Various thermostable mutations suppressing the folding block of the Z variant in vitro corrected the secretion defect as well as the intracellular degradation in the yeast secretion system. Significantly, the extent of suppression in the secretion defect of Z protein was proportional to the extent of suppression in the folding defect, assuring that the in vivo defect associated with the Z variant is primarily derived from the folding block. In contrast, the folding and secretion efficiency of S(iiyama) was not much improved by the same mutations. In addition, none of the rarely secreted S(iiyama) alpha1-AT carrying the stabilizing mutations for the wild type and Z variant were active. It appears that the major defect in S(iiyama) variant is the loss of stability in contrast to the kinetic block of folding in the Z variant.

Mammalian tissues express three immunologically distinct peroxiredoxin (Prx) proteins (Prx I, II, and III), which are the products of distinct genes. With the use of recombinant proteins Prx I, II, and III, all have now been shown to possess peroxidase activity and to rely on Trx as a source of reducing equivalents for the reduction of H 2 O 2 . Prx I and II are cytosolic proteins, whereas Prx III is localized in mitochondria. Transient overexpression of Prx I or II in cultured cells showed that they were able to eliminate the intracellular H 2 O 2 generated in response to growth factors. Moreover, the activation of nuclear factor B (NF B) induced by extracellularly added H 2 O 2 or tumor necrosis factor-␣ was blocked by overproduction of Prx II. These results suggest that, together with glutathione peroxidase and catalase, Prx enzymes likely play an important role in eliminating peroxides generated during metabolism. In addition, Prx I and II might participate in the signaling cascades of growth factors and tumor necrosis factor-␣ by regulating the intracellular concentration of H 2 O 2 .We have previously purified a 25-kDa thioredoxin peroxidase (TPx) 1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae that reduces hydroperoxides with thioredoxin (Trx) as an immediate electron donor (1-7). A data base search revealed more than 40 proteins from a wide variety of species that show sequence similarity to yeast TPx (8,9). These homologous proteins were named the peroxiredoxin (Prx) family (8, 9). They were not termed the TPx family because not all members use Trx as the hydrogen donor (10, 11). 2 The Prx family includes 12 mammalian proteins that were identified without reference to peroxidase activity but rather in association with a variety of diverse cellular functions including proliferation, differentiation, and immune response (12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24). Whether any of these mammalian Prx proteins possess peroxidase activity and, if so, the identity of the immediate electron donors both remain unknown. As will be published elsewhere, the mammalian Prx members can be divided into three distinct groups (Prx I, II, and III) on the basis of their amino acid sequences and immunological properties. 3

Peroxidases of the peroxiredoxin (Prxshowed no detectable thioredoxin-dependent peroxidase activity, whereas mutation of Cys 73 had no effect on activity. Immunoblot analysis revealed that PrxV is widely expressed in rat tissues and cultured mammalian cells and is localized intracellularly to cytosol, mitochondria, and peroxisomes. The peroxidase function of PrxV in vivo was demonstrated by the observations that transient expression of the wild-type protein, but not that of the Cys 48 mutant, in NIH 3T3 cells inhibited H 2 O 2 accumulation and activation of c-Jun NH 2 -terminal kinase induced by tumor necrosis factor-␣.

Thioredoxin peroxidase (TPx) is a member of a newly discovered family of proteins that are conserved from yeast to mammals and to which natural killer enhancing factor belongs. These proteins are antioxidants that function as peroxidases only when coupled to a sulfhydryl reducing system. The physiological function of TPx in cells is not yet known. Here we demonstrate that when the human TPx II, a member of this family, is stably overexpressed in Molt-4 leukemia cells, it protects from apoptosis induced by serum deprivation, ceramide, or etoposide. TPx II, like Bcl-2, is able to inhibit release of cytochrome c from mitochondria to cytosol, and it inhibits lipid peroxidation in cells. TPx II, unlike Bcl-2, could prevent hydrogen peroxide accumulation in cells, suggesting that it functions upstream of Bcl-2 in the protection from apoptosis and may be implicated as an endogenous regulator of apoptosis.

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Propionibacterium acne and sebaceous glands are considered to have an important role in the development of acne. Although information regarding the activation of innate immunity by P. acnes in the sebaceous gland is limited, different P. acnes phylotypes and a higher prevalence of follicular P. acnes macrocolonies/biofilms in sebaceous follicles of skin biopsies from acne compared with control skin and occasionally single P. acnes clusters in single sebaceous glands have been detected. In this study, we investigated whether P. acnes activates the inflammasome in human sebaceous glands in vivo and in vitro. We found that IL-1β expression was upregulated in sebaceous glands of acne lesions. After stimulation of human sebocytes with P. acnes, the activation of caspase-1 and secretion of IL-1β were enhanced significantly. Moreover, knocking down the expression of NLRP3 abolished P. acnes-induced IL-1β production in sebocytes. The activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome by P. acnes was dependent on protease activity and reactive oxygen species generation. Finally, we found that NALP3-deficient mice display an impaired inflammatory response to P. acnes. These results suggest that human sebocytes are important immunocompetent cells that induce the NLRP3 inflammasome, and that P. acnes-induced IL-1β activation in sebaceous glands may have a role in combating skin infections and in acne pathogenesis.

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PC and MPV are inversely associated with vitamin D levels in adults.