We have identified EMS-induced mutations in Drosophila Miro (dMiro), an atypical mitochondrial GTPase that is orthologous to human Miro (hMiro). Mutant dmiro animals exhibit defects in locomotion and die prematurely. Mitochondria in dmiro mutant muscles and neurons are abnormally distributed. Instead of being transported into axons and dendrites, mitochondria accumulate in parallel rows in neuronal somata. Mutant neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) lack presynaptic mitochondria, but neurotransmitter release and acute Ca2+ buffering is only impaired during prolonged stimulation. Neuronal, but not muscular, expression of dMiro in dmiro mutants restored viability, transport of mitochondria to NMJs, the structure of synaptic boutons, the organization of presynaptic microtubules, and the size of postsynaptic muscles. In addition, gain of dMiro function causes an abnormal accumulation of mitochondria in distal synaptic boutons of NMJs. Together, our findings suggest that dMiro is required for controlling anterograde transport of mitochondria and their proper distribution within nerve terminals.

A number of calcium buffers were examined for their ability to reduce evoked transmitter release when injected into the presynaptic terminal of the squid giant synapse. Injection of EGTA was virtually ineffective at reducing transmitter release, even at estimated intracellular concentrations up to 80 mM. Conversely, the buffer 1,2-bis(2- aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA), which has an equilibrium affinity for calcium similar to that of EGTA at pH 7.2, produced a substantial reduction in transmitter release when injected presynaptically. This effect of BAPTA was reversible, presumably because the buffer diffused out of the terminal and into uninjected regions of the presynaptic axon. BAPTA derivatives with estimated intracellular calcium dissociation constants (Kd) ranging from 0.18 to 4.9 microM were effective at reducing transmitter release at similar estimated concentrations. A BAPTA derivative with an estimated intracellular Kd of 31 mM was less effective. BAPTA did not affect presynaptic action potentials or calcium spikes in ways that could explain its ability to reduce transmitter release. The relative effects of presynaptic injections of BAPTA and derivatives are consistent with the calcium-buffering capability of these compounds if the presynaptic calcium transient that triggers release is hundreds of microM or larger. The superior potency of BAPTA compared to EGTA apparently results from the faster calcium-binding kinetics of BAPTA and suggests that the calcium-binding molecule that triggers release binds calcium in considerably less than 200 microsec and is located very close to calcium channels.

To examine the role of Ca2+ in early neuronal death, we studied the impact of free intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) on survivability in populations of cultured mouse spinal neurons. We asked whether early neurotoxicity was triggered by Ca2+ influx, whether elevated [Ca2+]i was a predictive indicator of impending neuronal death, and whether factors other than [Ca2+]i increases influenced Ca2+ neurotoxicity. We found that when neurons were lethally challenged with excitatory amino acids or high K+, they experienced a biphasic [Ca2+]i increase characterized by a primary [Ca2+]i transient that decayed within minutes, followed by a secondary, sustained, and irreversible [Ca2+]i rise that indicated imminent cell death. We showed that in the case of glutamate-triggered neurotoxicity, processes triggering eventual cell death required Ca2+ influx, and that neurotoxicity was a function of the transmembrane Ca2+ gradient. Fura-2 Ca2+ imaging revealed a "ceiling" on measurable changes in [Ca2+]i that contributed to the difficulty in relating [Ca2+]i to neurotoxicity. We found, by evoking Ca2+ influx into neurons through different pathways, that the chief determinants of Ca2+ neurotoxicity were the Ca2+ source and the duration of the Ca2+ challenge. When Ca2+ source and challenge duration were taken into account, a statistically significant relationship between measured [Ca2+]i and cell death was uncovered, although the likelihood of neuronal death depended much more on Ca2+ source than on the magnitude of the measured [Ca2+]i increase. Thus, neurotoxicity evoked by glutamate far exceeded that evoked by membrane depolarization with high K+ when [Ca2+]i was made to increase equally in both groups. The neurotoxicity of glutamate was triggered primarily by Ca2+ influx through NMDA receptor channels, and exceeded that triggered by non-NMDA receptors and Ca2+ channels when [Ca2+]i was made to rise equally through these separate pathways. The greater neurotoxicity triggered by NMDA receptors was related to some attribute other than an ability to trigger greater [Ca2+]i increases as compared with other Ca2+ sources. We hypothesize that this represents a physical colocalization of NMDA receptors with Ca(2+)-dependent rate-limiting processes that trigger early neuronal degeneration.

No abstract

The regulation of synaptic transmission by Ca(2+)-activated potassium (gKca) channels was investigated at the frog neuromuscular junction (nmj). Charybdotoxin (CTX), a blocker of certain types of gKca channels, induced a twofold increase of transmitter release. Similar results were obtained with purified natural toxin, synthetic toxin, and recombinant toxin. Apamin, a blocker of a different type of gKca channel, did not alter transmitter release. CTX was ineffective after intraterminal Ca2+ buffering was increased by application of the membrane-permeant Ca2+ buffer dimethyl-BAPTA-AM. By itself, the permeant buffer first caused a slight increase in transmitter release before release was eventually decreased. This increase of release did not occur when the buffer was applied in the presence of CTX or Ba2+, another gKca channel blocker. Stimulus-evoked entry of Ca2+ in nerve terminals, detected with the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator FLUO-3, was increased after blockade of gKca channels by CTX. CTX had no effect on the amount or the time course of synaptic depression. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that CTX-sensitive gKca channels normally narrow the presynaptic action potential and thus, by indirectly regulating Ca2+ entry, can serve as powerful modulators of evoked transmitter release. In order to affect presynaptic action potentials, the gKca channels must be located close to Ca2+ channels.