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This work investigates the extent to which domestic energy storage, in the form of batteries, can increase the self-consumption of electricity generated by a photovoltaic (PV) installation. The work uses real-world household energy consumption data (measurements) as the input to a household energy consumption model. The model maximizes household self-sufficiency, by minimizing the amount of electricity purchased from the grid, and thereby also maximizing the level of selfconsumption of PV electricity, i.e., the amount of PV-generated electricity that is consumed in-house. This is done for different combinations of PV installation sizes (measured in array-to-load ratio; ALR: ratio of the PV capacity to the average annual electric load of a household) and battery capacities for different categories of single-family dwellings in Sweden (i.e., northern latitudes). The modeling includes approximately 2000 households (buildings). The results show that the use of batteries with capacities within the investigated range, i.e., 0.15-100 kWh, can increase the level of self-consumption by a practical maximum of 20-50 percentage points (depending on the load profile of the household) compared to not using a battery. As an example, for a household with an annual electricity consumption of 20 MWh and a PV installation of 7 kWp,, this range in increased self-consumption of PV-generated electricity requires battery capacities in the range of 15-24 kWh (actual usable capacity), depending on the load profile of the specific household. The practical maximum range is determined by the seasonality of PV generation at Swedish latitudes, i.e., higher levels of increased self-consumption are possible, however, it would require substantially larger batteries than the up to 100 kWh investigated in this work. Thus, any additional marginal increment in battery capacity beyond the range investigated results in a low level of utilization and poor additional value. Furthermore, our results reveal that when a battery is used to store PVgenerated electricity in-house, self-sufficiency increases (as compared to not using a battery) by 12.5-30 percentage points for the upper range of the investigated PV capacities (ALR of 6).

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Despite sharp differences in government policy, the views of the U.S. public on energy and global warming are remarkably similar to those in Sweden, Britain, and Japan. Americans do exhibit some differences, placing lower priority on the environment and global warming, and with fewer believing that "global warming has been established as a serious problem and immediate action is necessary". There also remains a small hard core of skeptics (<10%) who do not believe in the science of climate change and the need for action, a group that is much smaller in the other countries surveyed. The similarities are, however, pervasive. Similar preferences are manifest across a wide range of technology and fuel choices, in support of renewables, in research priorities, in a basic understanding of which technologies produce or reduce carbon dioxide (or misunderstandings in the case of nuclear power), and in willingness to pay for solving global warming.

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This paper investigates the potential and economics of electrical space heating in Swedish single-family dwellings (SFDs) to provide Demand Response (DR) for the electricity load in Sweden. A dynamic and detailed building-stock model, is used to calculate the net energy demand by end-use of a set of sample buildings taken as representative of all Swedish SFDs with electrical heating. A new sub-model optimizes the dispatch of heating systems on an hourly basis, for each representative building, minimizing the cost of electricity purchased from the hourly spot market. The analysis of the Swedish SFD buildings indicates a technical DR capacity potential of 7.3 GW, which is considerable and can be used for the management of intermittent electricity generation. This potential could also prove to be valuable in the operating reserve market. However, this requires that the DR, rather than being governed by a single hourly electricity price signal, would instead be subject to a more centralized control. The modeling shows that DR can be expected to result in up to 5.5 GW of decreased load and 4.4 GW of increased load, if applying current Swedish electricity prices. The modeling shows that DR shifts up to 1.46 TWh of electric heating, corresponding to 1% of total Swedish electricity demand. The potential savings from DR for individual SFDs is found to be low, 0.9 to 330 €/year, given current Swedish electricity prices.

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