The signaling through receptor tyrosine kinases expressed on mature osteoclasts has recently been suggested to be involved in osteoclastic bone resorption. This study investigated the mechanism and the possible physiological relevance of Gas6/Tyro 3, a receptor tyrosine kinase signaling pathway in osteoclasts in stimulating osteoclastic bone resorption using several mouse culture systems. Gas6, expressed ubiquitously in bone cells, did not affect the differentiation or the survival of osteoclasts, but stimulated osteoclast function to form resorbed pits on a dentine slice. The expression of its receptor, Tyro 3, was seen only in mature osteoclasts among bone cells. Gas6 up-regulated the phosphorylation of cellular proteins including p42/p44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), but not p38 or c-Jun Nterminal kinase MAPK, and increased the kinase activity of immunoprecipitated Tyro 3 in isolated osteoclasts. The ability of Gas6 to stimulate pit formation resorbed by osteoclasts was abrogated by PD98059, a specific inhibitor of p42/p44 MAPK. In addition, the Gas6 mRNA level in bone marrow was up-regulated by ovariectomy and was reduced by estrogen replacement. These results strongly suggest that Gas6 acts directly on mature osteoclasts through activation of Tyro 3 and p42/ p44 MAPK, possibly contributing to the bone loss by estrogen deficiency.

This study investigated the involvement of cell cycle factors in RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation. Among the G1 cell cycle factors, Cdk6 was found to be a key molecule in determining the differentiation rate of osteoclasts as a downstream effector of the NF-B signaling.Introduction: A temporal arrest in the G1 phase of the cell cycle is a prerequisite for cell differentiation, making it possible that cell cycle factors regulate not only the proliferation but also the differentiation of cells. This study investigated cell cycle factors that critically influence differentiation of the murine monocytic RAW264.7 cells to osteoclasts induced by RANKL. Materials and Methods: Growth-arrested RAW cells were stimulated with serum in the presence or absence of soluble RANKL (100 ng/ml). Expressions of the G1 cell cycle factors cyclin D1, D2, D3, E, cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) 2, 4, 6, and Cdk inhibitors (p18 and p27) were determined by Western blot analysis. Involvement of NF-B and c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathways was examined by overexpressing dominant negative mutants of the IB kinase 2 (IKK DN ) gene and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7 (MKK7 DN ) gene, respectively, using the adenovirus vectors. To determine the direct effect of Cdk6 on osteoclast differentiation, stable clones of RAW cells transfected with Cdk6 cDNA were established. Osteoclast differentiation was determined by TRACP staining, and cell cycle regulation was determined by BrdU uptake and flow cytometric analysis. Results and Conclusion: Among the cell cycle factors examined, the Cdk6 level was downregulated by RANKL synchronously with the appearance of multinucleated osteoclasts. Inhibition of the NF-B pathway by IKK

This study investigated the mechanism of direct and indirect actions of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) on osteoclast differentiation using two mouse cell culture systems. In the coculture system of osteoblasts and bone marrow cells, FGF-2 stimulated osteoclast formation. This effect was decreased markedly by osteoprotegerin (OPG) or NS-398, a selective cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX-2) inhibitor.

This study initially confirmed that, among prostaglandins (PGs) produced in bone, only PGE(2) has the potency to stimulate osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption in the mouse coculture system of osteoblasts and bone marrow cells. For the PGE(2) biosynthesis two isoforms of the terminal and specific enzymes, membrane-associated PGE(2) synthase (mPGES) and cytosolic PGES (cPGES) have recently been identified. In cultured mouse primary osteoblasts, both mPGES and cyclooxygenase-2 were induced by the bone resorptive cytokines interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and fibroblast growth factor-2. Induction of mPGES was also seen in the mouse long bone and bone marrow in vivo by intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide. In contrast, cPGES was expressed constitutively both in vitro and in vivo without being affected by these stimuli. An antisense oligonucleotide blocking mPGES expression inhibited not only PGE(2) production, but also osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption stimulated by the cytokines, which was reversed by addition of exogenous PGE(2). We therefore conclude that mPGES, which is induced by and mediates the effects of bone resorptive stimuli, may make a target molecule for the treatment of bone resorptive disorders.

In vitro assays revealed that COX-2 inhibitors with CA II inhibitory potency suppressed both differentiation and activity of osteoclasts, whereas that without the potency reduced only osteoclast differentiation. However, all COX-2 inhibitors similarly suppressed bone destruction in adjuvant-induced arthritic rats, indicating that suppression of osteoclast differentiation is more effective than that of osteoclast activity for the treatment.Introduction: Cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and carbonic anhydrase II (CA II) are known to play important roles in the differentiation of osteoclasts and the activity of mature osteoclasts, respectively. Because several COX-2 selective agents were recently found to possess an inhibitory potency against CA II, this study compared the bone sparing effects of COX-2 selective agents with and without the CA II inhibitory potency. Materials and Methods: Osteoclast differentiation was determined by the mouse co-culture system of osteoblasts and bone marrow cells, and mature osteoclast activity was measured by the pit area on a dentine slice resorbed by osteoclasts generated and isolated from bone marrow cells. In vivo effects on arthritic bone destruction were determined by radiological and histological analyses of hind-paws of adjuvant-induced arthritic (AIA) rats. Results: CA II was expressed predominantly in mature osteoclasts, but not in the precursors. CA II activity was inhibited by sulfonamide-type COX-2 selective agents celecoxib and JTE-522 similarly to a CA II inhibitor acetazolamide, but not by a methylsulfone-type COX-2 inhibitor rofecoxib. In vitro assays clearly revealed that celecoxib and JTE-522 suppressed both differentiation and activity of osteoclasts, whereas rofecoxib and acetazolamide suppressed only osteoclast differentiation and activation, respectively. However, bone destruction in AIA rats was potently and similarly suppressed by all COX-2 selective agents whether with or without CA II inhibitory potency, although only moderately by acetazolamide. Conclusions: Suppression of osteoclast differentiation by COX-2 inhibition is more effective than suppression of mature osteoclast activity by CA II inhibition for the treatment of arthritic bone destruction.

It has recently been suggested that signaling through receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) expressed on mature osteoclasts is involved in osteoclastic bone resorption. This study investigated the role and mechanism of two major RTKs expressed on mature osteoclasts, fibroblast growth factor receptor type 1 (FGFR1) and Tyro 3. Among the FGF receptors (FGFR1-4), only FGFR1 was detected on isolated mouse osteoclasts, while all FGFRs were identified on mouse osteoblasts. Tyro 3 was seen only in mature osteoclasts among bone cells. FGF-2 moderately stimulated pit formation by isolated rabbit osteoclasts at low concentrations (>==10(-12) M), whereas at high concentrations (>==10(-9) M) it strongly stimulated pit formation by unfractionated bone cells. Gas6, the ligand of Tyro 3, was expressed ubiquitously in bone cells and stimulated osteoclast function to form resorbed pits on a dentine slice. Both FGF-2 and Gas6 upregulated the phosphorylation of cellular proteins, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and increased the kinase activity of immunoprecipitated FGFR1 and Tyro 3, respectively, in mouse osteoclasts. The stimulation of these cytokines on mouse and rabbit osteoclast functions was abrogated by PD98059, a specific inhibitor of ERK. These results strongly suggest that these cytokines act directly on mature osteoclasts through the activation of RTKs and ERK, causing the stimulation of bone resorption.

It has recently been suggested that signaling through receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) expressed on mature osteoclasts is involved in osteoclastic bone resorption. This study investigated the role and mechanism of two major RTKs expressed on mature osteoclasts, fibroblast growth factor receptor type 1 (FGFR1) and Tyro 3. Among the FGF receptors (FGFR1-4), only FGFR1 was detected on isolated mouse osteoclasts, while all FGFRs were identified on mouse osteoblasts. Tyro 3 was seen only in mature osteoclasts among bone cells. FGF-2 moderately stimulated pit formation by isolated rabbit osteoclasts at low concentrations (>==10(-12) M), whereas at high concentrations (>==10(-9) M) it strongly stimulated pit formation by unfractionated bone cells. Gas6, the ligand of Tyro 3, was expressed ubiquitously in bone cells and stimulated osteoclast function to form resorbed pits on a dentine slice. Both FGF-2 and Gas6 upregulated the phosphorylation of cellular proteins, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and increased the kinase activity of immunoprecipitated FGFR1 and Tyro 3, respectively, in mouse osteoclasts. The stimulation of these cytokines on mouse and rabbit osteoclast functions was abrogated by PD98059, a specific inhibitor of ERK. These results strongly suggest that these cytokines act directly on mature osteoclasts through the activation of RTKs and ERK, causing the stimulation of bone resorption.

No abstract