Ectrodactyly, or Split-Hand/Foot Malformation (SHFM), is a congenital condition characterized by the loss of central rays of hands and feet. The p63 and the DLX5;DLX6 transcription factors, expressed in the embryonic limb buds and ectoderm, are disease genes for these conditions. Mutations of p63 also cause the ectodermal dysplasia–ectrodactyly–cleft lip/palate (EEC) syndrome, comprising SHFM. Ectrodactyly is linked to defects of the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) of the developing limb buds. FGF8 is the key signaling molecule in this process, able to direct proximo-distal growth and patterning of the skeletal primordial of the limbs. In the limb buds of both p63 and Dlx5;Dlx6 murine models of SHFM, the AER is poorly stratified and FGF8 expression is severely reduced. We show here that the FGF8 locus is a downstream target of DLX5 and that FGF8 counteracts Pin1–ΔNp63α interaction. In vivo, lack of Pin1 leads to accumulation of the p63 protein in the embryonic limbs and ectoderm. We show also that ΔNp63α protein stability is negatively regulated by the interaction with the prolyl-isomerase Pin1, via proteasome-mediated degradation; p63 mutant proteins associated with SHFM or EEC syndromes are resistant to Pin1 action. Thus, DLX5, p63, Pin1 and FGF8 participate to the same time- and location-restricted regulatory loop essential for AER stratification, hence for normal patterning and skeletal morphogenesis of the limb buds. These results shed new light on the molecular mechanisms at the basis of the SHFM and EEC limb malformations.

Cell cycle and apoptosis regulator 2 (CCAR2, formerly known as DBC1) is a nuclear protein largely involved in DNA damage response, apoptosis, metabolism, chromatin structure and transcription regulation. Upon DNA lesions, CCAR2 is phosphorylated by the apical kinases ATM/ATR and this phosphorylation enhances CCAR2 binding to SIRT1, leading to SIRT1 inhibition, p53 acetylation and p53-dependent apoptosis. Recently, we found that also the checkpoint kinase Chk2 and the proteasome activator REGγ are required for efficient CCAR2-mediated inhibition of SIRT1 and induction of p53-dependent apoptosis.Here, we report that CCAR2 is required for the repair of heterochromatic DNA lesions, as cells knock-out for CCAR2 retain, at late time-points after genotoxic treatment, abnormal levels of DNA damage-associated nuclear foci, whose timely resolution is reinstated by HP1β depletion. Conversely, repair of DNA damages in euchromatin are not affected by CCAR2 absence.We also report that the impairment in heterochromatic DNA repair is caused by defective Chk2 activation, detectable in CCAR2 ablated cells, which finally impacts on the phosphorylation of the Chk2 substrate KAP1 that is required for the induction of heterochromatin relaxation and DNA repair.These studies further extend and confirm the role of CCAR2 in the DNA damage response and DNA repair and illustrate a new mechanism of Chk2 activity regulation. Moreover, the involvement of CCAR2 in the repair of heterochromatic DNA breaks suggests a new role for this protein in the maintenance of chromosomal stability, which is necessary to prevent cancer formation.

Human CCAR2 has recently emerged as having a pivotal role in the DNA damage response, promoting apoptosis and repair of heterochromatic DNA breaks. However, less is known about the function of CCAR2 in tumor formation and cancer progression. Here, we demonstrate, for the first time, that CCAR2 loss inhibits the proliferation of cancer cells, but preserves the growth of normal cells. Investigating the mechanisms responsible for this differential effect, we found that CCAR2 depletion specifically impairs the activation of AKT pathway in cancer cells, but not in normal cells, by reducing AKT phosphorylation on Ser473. This effect is achieved through the transcriptional upregulation of TRB3 gene and accumulation of TRB3 protein, which then binds to and inhibits the phosphorylation and activation of AKT. The defective activation of AKT finally results in reduced GSK3β phosphorylation, prevention of G1/S transition and inhibition of cancer cell growth. These results establish an important role for CCAR2 in cancer cells proliferation and could shed new light on novel therapeutic strategies against cancer, devoid of detrimental side effects.

The p63 transcription factor, homolog to the p53 tumor suppressor gene, plays a crucial role in epidermal and limb development, as its mutations are associated to human congenital syndromes characterized by skin, craniofacial and limb defects. While limb and skin-specific p63 transcriptional targets are being discovered, little is known of the post-translation modifications controlling ΔNp63α functions. Here we show that the p300 acetyl-transferase physically interacts in vivo with ΔNp63α and catalyzes its acetylation on lysine 193 (K193) inducing ΔNp63α stabilization and activating specific transcriptional functions. Furthermore we show that Fibroblast Growth Factor-8 (FGF8), a morphogenetic signaling molecule essential for embryonic limb development, increases the binding of ΔNp63α to the tyrosine kinase c-Abl as well as the levels of ΔNp63α acetylation. Notably, the natural mutant ΔNp63α-K193E, associated to the Split-Hand/Foot Malformation-IV syndrome, cannot be acetylated by this pathway. This mutant ΔNp63α protein displays promoter-specific loss of DNA binding activity and consequent altered expression of development-associated ΔNp63α target genes. Our results link FGF8, c-Abl and p300 in a regulatory pathway that controls ΔNp63α protein stability and transcriptional activity. Hence, limb malformation-causing p63 mutations, such as the K193E mutation, are likely to result in aberrant limb development via the combined action of altered protein stability and altered promoter occupancy.

Ataxia Telangiectasia (A-T) is neurodegenerative syndrome caused by inherited mutations inactivating the ATM kinase, a master regulator of the DNA damage response (DDR). What makes neurons vulnerable to ATM loss remains unclear. In this study we assessed on human iPSC-derived neurons whether the abnormal accumulation of DNA-Topoisomerase 1 adducts (Top1ccs) found in A-T impairs transcription elongation, thus favoring neurodegeneration. Furthermore, whether neuronal activity-induced immediate early genes (IEGs), a process involving the formation of DNA breaks, is affected by ATM deficiency. We found that Top1cc trapping by CPT induces an ATM-dependent DDR as well as an ATM-independent induction of IEGs and repression especially of long genes. As revealed by nascent RNA sequencing, transcriptional elongation and recovery were found to proceed with the same rate, irrespective of gene length and ATM status. Neuronal activity induced by glutamate receptors stimulation, or membrane depolarization with KCl, triggered a DDR and expression of IEGs, the latter independent of ATM. In unperturbed A-T neurons a set of genes (FN1, DCN, RASGRF1, FZD1, EOMES, SHH, NR2E1) implicated in the development, maintenance and physiology of central nervous system was specifically downregulated, underscoring their potential involvement in the neurodegenerative process in A-T patients.