Neonates have little immunological memory and a developing immune system, which increases their vulnerability to infectious agents. Recent advances in understanding of neonatal immunity indicate that both innate and adaptive responses are dependent on precursor frequency of lymphocytes, antigenic dose and mode of exposure. Studies in neonatal mouse models and human umbilical cord blood cells demonstrate the capability of neonatal immune cells to produce immune responses similar to adults in some aspects but not others. This review focuses mainly on the developmental and functional mechanisms of the human neonatal immune system. In particular, the mechanism of innate and adaptive immunity and the role of neutrophils, antigen presenting cells, differences in subclasses of T lymphocytes (Th1, Th2, Tregs) and B cells are discussed. In addition, we have included the recent developments in neonatal mouse immune system. Understanding neonatal immunity is essential to development of therapeutic vaccines to combat newly emerging infectious agents.

Objective To describe NP and AOM otopathogens during the time frame 2007-2009, six to eight years after the introduction of 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate (PCV7) in the US and to compare nasopharyngeal (NP) colonization and acute otitis media (AOM) microbiology in children 6 to 36 months of age having 1st and 2nd AOM episodes with children who are otitis prone. Methods Prospectively, the microbiology of NP colonization and AOM episodes was determined in 120 children with absent or infrequent AOM episodes. NP samples were collected at 7 routine visits between 6 and 30 months of age and at the time of AOM. For 1st and subsequent AOM episodes, middle ear fluid (MEF) was obtained by tympanocentesis. Eighty otitis prone children were comparatively studied. All 200 children received age-appropriate doses of PCV7. Results We found PCV7 serotypes were virtually absent: (0.9% isolated from both NP and MEF) in both study groups. However, non-PCV7 serotypes replaced PCV serotypes such that the frequency of isolation of S. pneumoniae (Spn) was nearly equal to that of non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi). M. catarrhalis (Mcat) was less common and Staphylococcus aureus infrequent in the NP and MEF from the two groups. The proportion of Spn, NTHi and Mcat causing AOM was similar in children with 1st and 2nd AOM episodes compared to otitis prone children. However, oxacillin-resistant Spn isolated from the NP and MEF was 19% for the absent/infrequent and 58% for the otitis prone groups, p<0.0001. Beta-lactamase producing NTHi occurred more frequently in the otitis prone group, p=0.04. Conclusions Six to 8 years after widespread use of PCV7, Spn strains expressing vaccine-type serotypes have virtually disappeared from the NP and MEF of vaccinated children. NP colonization and AOM has changed to non-PCV7 strains of Spn. NTHi continues to be a major AOM pathogen. The otopathogens in 1st and 2nd AOM and in otitis prone children are very similar although Spn and NTHi are more often antibiotic resistant in the otitis prone.

In our experience, persistent AOM and AOMTF has decreased in frequency since the introduction of high dose amoxicillin therapy and pneumococcal conjugate vaccination. It appears that H. influenzae has become the predominant pathogen of persistent AOM and AOMTF since universal immunization with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Fewer S. pneumoniae AOM isolates are penicillin-resistant and more H. influenzae are beta-lactamase-producing.

Context Concern has been raised about the possible emergence of a bacterial strain that is untreatable by US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved antibiotics and that causes acute otitis media (AOM) in children. Objective To monitor continuing shifts in the strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae that cause AOM, with particular attention to capsular serotypes and antibiotic susceptibility, following the introduction of a pneumococcal 7-valent conjugate vaccine (PCV7). Design, Setting, and Patients Prospective cohort study using tympanocentesis to identify S pneumoniae strains that caused AOM in children receiving PCV7 between September 2003 and June 2006. All children were from a Rochester, New York, pediatric practice. Main Outcome Measure Determination of serotypes and antibiotic susceptibility of S pneumoniae causing AOM.

To our knowledge, this is the first prospective study to confirm that PANDAS is associated with acute GABHS tonsillopharyngitis and responds to appropriate antibiotic therapy at the sentinel episode.