The protein kinase mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) in complex 1 (mTORC1) promotes cell growth and proliferation in response to anabolic stimuli, including growth factors and nutrients. Growth factors activate mTORC1 by stimulating the kinase Akt, which phosphorylates and inhibits the tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC; which is comprised of TSC1, TSC2, and TBC1D7), thereby stimulating the mTORC1 activator Rheb. Here, we identified the mechanism through which REDD1 (regulated in DNA damage and development 1) represses the mTORC1 signaling pathway. We found that REDD1 promoted the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-dependent dephosphorylation of Akt at Thr308 but not at Ser473. Consistent with previous studies showing that phosphorylation of Akt on Thr308, but not Ser473, is necessary for phosphorylation of TSC2, we observed a REDD1-dependent reduction in the phosphorylation of TSC2 and subsequently in the activity of Rheb. REDD1 and PP2A coimmunoprecipitated with Akt from wild-type but not REDD1-knockout mouse embryonic fibroblasts, suggesting that REDD1 may act as a targeting protein for the catalytic subunit of PP2A. Furthermore, binding to both Akt and PP2A was essential for REDD1 to repress signaling to mTORC1. Overall, the results demonstrate that REDD1 acts not just as a repressor of mTORC1, but also as a constant modulator of the phosphorylation of Akt in response to growth factors and nutrients.

Kelleher AR, Kimball SR, Dennis MD, Schilder RJ, Jefferson LS. The mTORC1 signaling repressors REDD1/2 are rapidly induced and activation of p70S6K1 by leucine is defective in skeletal muscle of an immobilized rat hindlimb. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 304: E229 -E236, 2013. First published November 27, 2012; doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00409.2012.-Limb immobilization, limb suspension, and bed rest cause substantial loss of skeletal muscle mass, a phenomenon termed disuse atrophy. To acquire new knowledge that will assist in the development of therapeutic strategies for minimizing disuse atrophy, the present study was undertaken with the aim of identifying molecular mechanisms that mediate control of protein synthesis and mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to unilateral hindlimb immobilization for 1, 2, 3, or 7 days or served as nonimmobilized controls. Following an overnight fast, rats received either saline or L-leucine by oral gavage as a nutrient stimulus. Hindlimb skeletal muscles were extracted 30 min postgavage and analyzed for the rate of protein synthesis, mRNA expression, phosphorylation state of key proteins in the mTORC1 signaling pathway, and mTORC1 signaling repressors. In the basal state, mTORC1 signaling and protein synthesis were repressed within 24 h in the soleus of an immobilized compared with a nonimmobilized hindlimb. These responses were accompanied by a concomitant induction in expression of the mTORC1 repressors regulated in development and DNA damage responses (REDD) 1/2. The nutrient stimulus produced an elevation of similar magnitude in mTORC1 signaling in both the immobilized and nonimmobilized muscle. In contrast, phosphorylation of 70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (p70S6K1) on Thr 229 and Thr 389 in response to the nutrient stimulus was severely blunted. Phosphorylation of Thr 229 by PDK1 is a prerequisite for phosphorylation of Thr 389 by mTORC1, suggesting that signaling through PDK1 is impaired in response to immobilization. In conclusion, the results show an immobilization-induced attenuation of mTORC1 signaling mediated by induction of REDD1/2 and defective p70S6K1 phosphorylation.casting; anabolic resistance; 70-kilodalton ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1; 4E-binding protein 1; puromycin; mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1; regulated in development and DNA damage responses 1/2 PROFOUND WASTING OF SKELETAL muscle, referred to as disuse atrophy, occurs in response to limb immobilization (10, 15, 16), limb suspension (40), and chronic bed rest (4,12,14). These conditions are associated with marked losses of skeletal muscle strength and function (21, 32), premature physical frailty (51), elevated health care costs, and an increased risk of mortality (36). Development of effective therapeutic strategies aimed at minimizing or preventing disuse atrophy will require a better understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms that contribute to the loss of skeletal muscle mass. Maintenance of skeletal muscle mas...

The phytochrome family of sensory photoreceptors interacts with phytochrome interacting factors (PIFs), repressors of photomorphogenesis, in response to environmental light signals and induces rapid phosphorylation and degradation of PIFs to promote photomorphogenesis. However, the kinase that phosphorylates PIFs is still unknown. Here we show that CK2 directly phosphorylates PIF1 at multiple sites. ␣1 and ␣2 subunits individually phosphorylated PIF1 weakly in vitro. However, each of four ␤ subunits strongly stimulated phosphorylation of PIF1 by ␣1 or ␣2. Mapping of the phosphorylation sites identified seven Ser/Thr residues scattered throughout PIF1. Ser/Thr to Ala scanning mutations at all seven sites eliminated CK2-mediated phosphorylation of PIF1 in vitro. Moreover, the rate of degradation of the Ser/Thr to Ala mutant PIF1 was significantly reduced compared with wild-type PIF1 in transgenic plants. In addition, hypocotyl lengths of the mutant PIF1 transgenic plants were much longer than the wild-type PIF1 transgenic plants under light, suggesting that the mutant PIF1 is suppressing photomorphogenesis. Taken together, these data suggest that CK2-mediated phosphorylation enhances the lightinduced degradation of PIF1 to promote photomorphogenesis.