In the present study, the human TEB4 is identified as a novel ER (endoplasmic reticulum)-resident ubiquitin ligase. TEB4 has homologues in many species and has a number of remarkable properties. TEB4 contains a conserved RING (really interesting new gene) finger and 13 predicted transmembrane domains. The RING finger of TEB4 and its homologues is situated at the N-terminus and has the unconventional C4HC3 configuration. The N-terminus of TEB4 is located in the cytosol. We show that the isolated TEB4 RING domain catalyses ubiquitin ligation in vitro in a reaction that is ubiquitin Lys48-specific and involves UBC7 (ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 7). These properties are reminiscent of E3 enzymes, which are involved in ER-associated protein degradation. TEB4 is an ER degradation substrate itself, promoting its own degradation in a RING finger- and proteasome-dependent manner
The protein kinase mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) in complex 1 (mTORC1) promotes cell growth and proliferation in response to anabolic stimuli, including growth factors and nutrients. Growth factors activate mTORC1 by stimulating the kinase Akt, which phosphorylates and inhibits the tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC; which is comprised of TSC1, TSC2, and TBC1D7), thereby stimulating the mTORC1 activator Rheb. Here, we identified the mechanism through which REDD1 (regulated in DNA damage and development 1) represses the mTORC1 signaling pathway. We found that REDD1 promoted the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-dependent dephosphorylation of Akt at Thr308 but not at Ser473. Consistent with previous studies showing that phosphorylation of Akt on Thr308, but not Ser473, is necessary for phosphorylation of TSC2, we observed a REDD1-dependent reduction in the phosphorylation of TSC2 and subsequently in the activity of Rheb. REDD1 and PP2A coimmunoprecipitated with Akt from wild-type but not REDD1-knockout mouse embryonic fibroblasts, suggesting that REDD1 may act as a targeting protein for the catalytic subunit of PP2A. Furthermore, binding to both Akt and PP2A was essential for REDD1 to repress signaling to mTORC1. Overall, the results demonstrate that REDD1 acts not just as a repressor of mTORC1, but also as a constant modulator of the phosphorylation of Akt in response to growth factors and nutrients.
I-Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) is essential for polyamine synthesis and growth in mammalian cells; it provides putrescine that is usually converted into the higher polyamines, spermidine and spermine. Many highly specific and potent inhibitors of ODC are based on the lead compound a-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), which is an enzyme-activated irreversible inhibitor. DFMO is accepted as a substrate by ODC and is decarboxylated, leading to the formation of a highly reactive species that forms a covalent adduct with either cysteine-360 (90%) or lysine-69 (10%). Both modifications inactivate the enzyme. ODC activity is normally very highly regulated at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels according to the growth state of the cell and the intracellular polyamine content. Experimental over-production of ODC can be caused by either transfection with plasmids containing the ODC cDNA with part of the 5'-untranslated region (5'UTR) deleted under the control of a very strong viral promoter, or transfection of plasmids that cause the overproduction of eIF-4E, reported to be a limiting factor in the translation of mRNAs with extensive secondary structures in the 5'UTR. In both cases, unregulated overexpression of ODC transforms NIH 3T3 cells to a neoplastic state. Along with studies showing that many tumor promoters increase ODC activity and that a number of preneoplastic conditions and tumor samples show high levels of ODC, these results suggest that ODC may act as an oncogene in an appropriate background. This provides a rationale for the possible use of ODC inhibitors as chemopreventive agents. Further support comes from studies showing that reducing ODC activity with DFMO abolishes the transformed phenotype of the NIH 3T3 cells overexpressing ODC; many studies found that treatment with DFMO reduces tumor incidence in experimental animals exposed to carcinogens. Although these results provide strong support for initial testing of DFMO as a chemopreventive agent, other means of reducing ODC activity should not be overlooked, including the use of other enzyme-activated irreversible inhibitors with higher potency and/or better pharmacokinetics than DFMO, use of dominant negative mutations or ribzymes to reduce active ODC levels, and use of regulators of ODC expression. FUNCTION AND REGULATION OF ODCODC is the first step in the polyamine biosynthesis pathway. In mammalian cells, it provides the only route for synthesis of putrescine, which is then converted into the higher polyamines spermidine and spermine [l-31. Reduction of ODC activity would be expected to reduce polyamine levels; however, polyamines are widespread in the diet and are products of intestinal microflora. Mammalian cell membranes contain an active uptake system for polyamines which is stimulated when intracellular polyamines are deple ted; up take of exogenous polyamines ameliorates the effects of ODC reduction.Very large changes in the ODC activity observed in cells are caused by alterations in the amount of ODC protein. ODC turns ...
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