Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR) in Peninsular Malaysia is under systematic management since 1902 and still considered as the best managed mangrove forest in the world. The present study on silvimetrics assessed the ongoing MMFR forest management, which includes a first thinning after 15 years, a second thinning after 20 years and clear-felling of 30-year old forest blocks, for its efficiency and productivity in comparison to natural mangroves. The estimated tree structural parameters (e.g. density, frequency) from three different-aged mangrove blocks of fifteen (MF15), twenty (MF20), and thirty (MF30) years old indicated that Bruguiera and Excoecaria spp. did not constitute a significant proportion of the vegetation (<5%), and hence the results focused majorly on Rhizophora apiculata. The density of R. apiculata at MF15, MF20 and MF30 was 4,331, 2,753 and 1,767 stems ha−1, respectively. In relation to ongoing practices of the artificial thinnings at MMFR, the present study suggests that the first thinning could be made earlier to limit the loss of exploitable wood due to natural thinning. In fact, the initial density at MF15 was expected to drop down from 6,726 to 1,858 trees ha−1 before the first thinning. Therefore the trees likely to qualify for natural thinning, though having a smaller stem diameter, should be exploited for domestic/commercial purposes at an earlier stage. The clear-felling block (MF30) with a maximum stem diameter of 30 cm was estimated to yield 372 t ha−1 of the above-ground biomass and suggests that the mangrove management based on a 30-year rotation is appropriate for the MMFR. Since Matang is the only iconic site that practicing sustainable wood production, it could be an exemplary to other mangrove locations for their improved management.

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The high mining potential of the Peruvian Andes has promoted booming foreign investments. The mining activity takes place on campesino community lands and headwaters. Once the government awards a mining concession, mining companies must regularly negotiate land rent with communities over the whole duration of the mining operation, often leading to disagreements. Our research objective is to identify the mining impacts on the farming activities of campesino communities in the Junin region, central Peruvian Andes. Using a mixed-methods approach involving in-depth interviews, water and soil analysis, land-cover classification and participatory mapping, we analyzed the mining-community agreements and the mining impacts on the farming lands. We arrived at two primary conclusions. First, mining activities in terms of heavy metal concentrations impact on farming lands, although the contribution of previous and concurrent activities cannot be distinguished. Second, the diverging and short-termed interests of the involved parties which circumscribe the agreements may potentially lead to conflicts.Minerals 2019, 9, 647 2 of 28 own the land [17,19]. Based on the canon minero, 50% of the taxes from the mining sector is distributed among the affected subnational governments (i.e., district and province) [20][21][22][23]. The subnational governments directly affected by mining may receive up to 70% of this tax [11,18,24], while campesino communities are excluded from receiving it directly. As a result, the communities tend to negotiate compensations separately with the mining companies. Both canon minero and compensations are aimed at reducing land-use conflicts. Despite this, conflicts increased (2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011), reduced in 2012 and have remained constant (ca. 162 yearly conflicts) since then [19,[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]. In 2017, Peru allocated 16 million ha for mining concessions [38], although not all of these became viable mines. The most common mining practice in Peru is open-pit mining, as this model is preferred for exploiting metal deposits. There are 36 open-pit mines throughout the country [39]. The environmental impacts of open-pit mining mainly relate to water infiltration and supply to rivers [12,[40][41][42], which impact the socio-economic situation of local households [1,[43][44][45].Most studies have split these biophysical and socio-economic aspects rather than integrating them [43][44][45][46]. Therefore, an interdisciplinary approach [47] is suggested to broaden the understanding of the impacts of mining from different perspectives. In this sense, the overarching objective of this study is to identify the mining impacts on the farming activities of campesino communities in the Junin region. Therefore, we first analyzed the agreements between mining companies and communities via in-depth interviews with stakeholders. Then, we evaluated the influence by open-pit mining sites on the water and soil quality and assessed the effects on farming lands. The foll...

The declining mangrove cover worldwide highlights the necessity of understanding the linkages between ecological and socio-economic dimensions of mangrove management. This study analyses the socio-economic aspects of the pole and charcoal production systems at Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR), known as the world’s longest managed mangrove forest, in Malaysia. We performed a socio-economic survey to identify the roles and relationships among stakeholders in the pole/charcoal production system and quantified the cash-flows in monetary value. Altogether, 160 interviews were conducted with contractors, forest officials, workers, middle-men, and consumers. The contractors are functioning as a “hub” from production to commercialization and receive major economic benefits. The commercialization of most charcoal (&gt;80%) aims to its exportation to Japan while the commercialization of poles is local. Although the workers’ income was less than the minimum wage, they still prefer charcoal production jobs because of the availability and geographic proximity of these jobs. Our research suggests a standard salary and health insurance schemes for the workers to reduce social inequality/poverty and improve their well-being. Considering that mangroves occur in over 120 countries, our methodology can be used as a reference to unveil the socio-economic situation of mangrove-dependent communities as well as to map the economic cash-flow of the local activities that form the basis for long-term sustainable mangrove management plans.

El potencial minero y la consecuente inversión minera en los Andes centrales del Perú y su superposición con tierras comunales han generado consecuencias que van desde el impacto en el medio ambiente hasta significativos cambios en la comunidad campesina como institución. El objetivo del presente estudio es analizar los factores socio-ambientales que debilitarían las comunidades campesinas de Huasicancha y Chongos Alto, en los Andes centrales del Perú. El presente caso de estudio se basó en métodos mixtos para ambas comunidades, incluyendo entrevistas abiertas, participación en actividades de la comunidad y observación desde noviembre de 2016 a julio de 2017. Se entrevistaron a 50 actores involucrados (e.g., comuneros, instituciones del gobierno, proyectos mineros, entre otros). Esta investigación encontró que ambas comunidades campesinas se enfrentan a problemas socio-ambientales, como la influencia de los proyectos mineros y sus intereses económicos, la inserción de programas sociales ejecutados por el Estado peruano, la relación que existe entre las instituciones estatales y las comunidades, el desinterés de los comuneros en la dinámica de su propia comunidad, el conflicto de la demarcación territorial pre-existente, la falta de oportunidades laborales, y la disminución de la producción agrícola. Por ello, la influencia de dichos factores socio-ambientales (externos e internos) ha desencadenado el debilitamiento de las comunidades campesinas como institución fundamental de la sierra peruana.

The world is witnessing an increase in environmental conflicts (ECs) caused by the overexploitation and pollution of natural resources. We argue that addressing the unsustainable and vicious cycle of most contemporary human-nature interactions fuelling these conflicts requires a shift towards inter- and transdisciplinary research. Through critical reflection upon six case studies, we conclude that transdisciplinary approaches often require academic researchers to not only integrate local and scientific forms of knowledge but also to open the research process to changes of epistemological assumptions and initial research designs in conjunction with local populations. We suggest that addressing ECs from a transdisciplinary viewpoint requires academia to review its role from ontological and epistemological perspectives through theoretical and procedural standards, to the reward and funding systems.