Informed by the cognition hypothesis (Robinson, 2011), recent studies indicate that more cognitively complex tasks can result in better incorporation of feedback during interaction and, as a consequence, more learning. It is not known, however, how task complexity and feedback work together in computerized environments. The present study addressed this gap by investigating how cognitive complexity in face-to-face (FTF) versus computer-mediated communication (CMC) environments mediates the efficacy of recasts in promoting second language development. Eighty-four adult learners of Spanish as a foreign language at a mid-Atlantic university were randomly assigned to a control group or one of four experimental groups. The experimental groups engaged in one-on-one interaction and received recasts on the Spanish past subjunctive but differed according to (a) whether or not they had to reflect on another person’s intentional reasons during the task and (b) whether they interacted in FTF or CMC environments. Learning was measured with two production tasks and a multiple-choice receptive test in a Pretest-Posttest 1-Posttest 2 design. Results revealed that in the FTF mode, performing the cognitively complex task while receiving recasts led to the most learning. In the CMC mode, the cognitively complex task + recasts was not effective. Instead, the cognitively simple task led to the most development in CMC. The study also found that judgments of time on task were the only independent measure of cognitive complexity that held across mode.

The construct of anxiety is often believed to be the affective factor with the greatest potential to pervasively affect the learning process (Horwitz, 2001), and recent research has demonstrated that anxiety can mediate whether learners are able to notice feedback and subsequently produce output (Sheen, 2008). In order to reduce the negative effects of anxiety, researchers have suggested that computer-based interaction may be an ideal medium for communication and practice (Kern, 1995), although this hypothesis has yet to be tested empirically. The current study addresses this gap by comparing the effect of computer-mediated communication (CMC) vs. face-to-face communication (FTF) on learners’ state anxiety. Twenty-five learners of intermediate Spanish completed two information-gap tasks with their teacher in a within-subject, counterbalanced design. Learners’ state anxiety was measured halfway through and following each task via a state anxiety questionnaire, and a task preference questionnaire was administered after the treatment. Results demonstrate that — contrary to expectations — reported state anxiety was not significantly lower in the CMC mode than the FTF mode. In fact, learners’ reported state anxiety was comparable across modality. The use and implications of both interactional modes for foreign language learning contexts are discussed, as are students’ perceptions of interaction in the CMC and FTF modes.

Theoretical claims about the benefi ts of corrective feedback have been largely premised on

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This study examines if type of learner-modified output differentially demonstrates noticing and whether or not this relationship holds in both face-to-face (FTF) and synchronous computer-mediated chat (SCMC) environments. Twenty-four learners of Spanish as a foreign language interacted one-on-one with an interlocutor in the FTF and the SCMC modes, during which they received corrective feedback. After each interaction, learners participated in a mode-specific stimulated recall session to measure their noticing of feedback. Data were coded for (a) feedback episode, (b) type of modified output (none, partial, or full), and (c) accurate noticing. Binary logistic regressions indicated that after feedback, partial modified output was the greatest predictor of accurate noticing of feedback. This finding applied in both FTF and SCMC.Whether learners' production of modified output after feedback is indicative of noticing is a contentious debate in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Both sides are empirically supported, with studies finding mixed results regarding the psycholinguistic relevance for modified output (e.g.see discussion by Long, 2007). The recent increase in online language courses further exacerbates this debate: Modified output has a significantly lower presence in the synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) mode (e.g., Baralt, 2010;Smith, 2010), and it is not known why or how this difference affects language © Cambridge University Press 2014 0142-7164/14 $15.00 Applied Psycholinguistics 2 Gurzynski-Weiss & Baralt: Modified output type and learner noticing learning opportunities online. Given the increase in second language (L2) learning and use in online contexts, there is a need to connect theoretical and empirical work done in the face-to-face (FTF) mode to SCMC contexts.The purpose of this paper is to reignite considerations for the production of modified output during task-based conversational interaction. We argue that a lack of operationalization coherence has been a main reason for mixed findings in the research and, following suggestions by Loewen (2005), propose a fine-grained approach to researching the construct for interaction in both traditional and online environments. After discussing the theoretical justification of the construct of modified output, we make the case for critically examining the difference between the constructs of uptake (as a general category) and, subsequently, full modified output, partial modified output, and no modified output. We then present the results from an experiment where we examined which modified output type best predicted noticing of corrective feedback during task-based conversational interaction and whether or not this was the same in the FTF versus SCMC modes. To conclude, we discuss how and why looking at different types of modified output is relevant for SLA theory.