Metal organic frameworks (MOFs), with their crystalline, porous structures, can be synthesized to incorporate a wide range of catalytically active metals in tailored surroundings. These materials have potential as catalysts for conversion of light alkanes, feedstocks available in large quantities from shale gas that are changing the economics of manufacturing commodity chemicals. Mononuclear high-spin (S = 2) Fe(II) sites situated in the nodes of the MOF MIL-100(Fe) convert propane via dehydrogenation, hydroxylation, and overoxidation pathways in reactions with the atomic oxidant N 2 O. Pair distribution function analysis, N 2 adsorption isotherms, X-ray diffraction patterns, and infrared and Raman spectra confirm the single-phase crystallinity and stability of MIL-100(Fe) under reaction conditions (523 K in vacuo, 378−408 K C 3 H 8 + N 2 O). Density functional theory (DFT) calculations illustrate a reaction mechanism for the formation of 2-propanol, propylene, and 1-propanol involving the oxidation of Fe(II) to Fe(III) via a high-spin Fe(IV)O intermediate. The speciation of Fe(II) and Fe(III) in the nodes and their dynamic interchange was characterized by in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy and ex situ Mossbauer spectroscopy. The catalytic relevance of Fe(II) sites and the number of such sites were determined using in situ chemical titrations with NO. N 2 and C 3 H 6 production rates were found to be first-order in N 2 O partial pressure and zero-order in C 3 H 8 partial pressure, consistent with DFT calculations that predict the reaction of Fe(II) with N 2 O to be rate determining. DFT calculations using a broken symmetry method show that Fe-trimer nodes affecting reaction contain antiferromagnetically coupled iron species, and highlight the importance of stabilizing high-spin (S = 2) Fe(II) species for effecting alkane oxidation at low temperatures (<408 K).

Metal−organic frameworks (MOFs) have drawn wide attention as candidate catalysts, but some essential questions about their nature and performance have barely been addressed. (1) How do OH groups on MOF nodes act as catalytic sites? (2) What are the relationships among these groups, node defects, and MOF stability, and how do reaction conditions influence them? (3) What are the interplays between catalytic properties and transport limitations? To address these questions, we report an experimental and theoretical investigation of the catalytic dehydration of tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) used to probe the activities of OH groups of Zr 6 O 8 nodes in the MOFs UiO-66 and MOF-808, which have different densities of vacancy sites and different pore sizes. The results show that (1) terminal node OH groups are formed as formate and/or acetate ligands present initially on the nodes react with TBA to form esters, (2) these OH groups act as catalytic sites for TBA dehydration to isobutylene, and (3) TBA also reacts to break node−linker bonds to form esters and thereby unzip the MOFs. The small pores of UiO-66 limit the access of TBA and the reaction with the formate/acetate ligands bound within the pores, whereas the larger pores of MOF-808 facilitate transport and favor reaction in the MOF interior. However, after removal of the formate and acetate ligands by reaction with methanol to form esters, interior active sites in UiO-66 become accessible for the reaction of TBA, with the activity depending on the density of defect sites with terminal OH groups. The number of vacancies on the nodes is important in determining a tradeoff between the catalytic activity of a MOF and its resistance to unzipping. Computations at the level of density functional theory show how the terminal OH groups on node vacancies act as Brønsted bases, facilitating TBA dehydration via a carbocation intermediate in an E1 mechanism; the calculations further illuminate the comparable chemistry of the unzipping.

Atomically dispersed noble metal catalysts have drawn wide attention as candidates to replace supported metal clusters and metal nanoparticles. Atomic dispersion can offer unique chemical properties as well as maximum utilization of the expensive metals. Addition of a second metal has been found to help reduce the size of Pt ensembles in bimetallic clusters; however, the stabilization of isolated Pt atoms in small nests of nonprecious metal atoms remains challenging. We now report a novel strategy for the design, synthesis, and characterization of a zeolite-supported propane dehydrogenation catalyst that incorporates predominantly isolated Pt atoms stably bonded within nests of Zn atoms located within the nanoscale pores of dealuminated zeolite Beta. The catalyst is stable in long-term operation and exhibits high activity and high selectivity to propene. Atomic resolution images, bolstered by X-ray absorption spectra, demonstrate predominantly atomic dispersion of the Pt in the nests and, with complementary infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectra, determine a structural model of the nested Pt.

When metals in supported catalysts are atomically dispersed, they are usually cationic and bonded chemically to supports. Investigations of noble metals in this class are growing rapidly, leading to discoveries of catalysts with new properties. Characterization of these materials is challenging because the metal atoms reside on surfaces that are typically nonuniform in composition and structure. We posit that understanding of structures and catalytic properties of these materials is emerging most strongly from investigations of structurally uniform catalysts (metal atoms dispersed on crystalline supports) which can be characterized incisively with atomic-resolution electron microscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and infrared spectroscopy, bolstered by density functional theory. We assess the literature of such catalysts supported on zeotype materials, metal–organic frameworks, and covalent organic frameworks. Assessing characterization, reactivity, and catalytic performance of catalysts for oxidation, hydrogenation, the water–gas shift reaction, and others, we consider metal–support interactions and ligand effects for various metal–support combinations, evaluating the degree of structural uniformity of exemplary catalysts and summarizing structure–reactivity and structure–catalytic property relationships.

Enveloping atomically dispersed supported iridium with the choice of ionic liquid molecular sheaths and supports controls the catalytic performance.

Atomically dispersed iridium complexes were anchored on a reduced graphene aerogel (rGA) by the reaction of Ir­(CO)2(acac) [acac = acetonylacetonato] with oxygen-containing groups on the rGA. Characterization by X-ray absorption, infrared, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopies and atomic resolution aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy demonstrates atomically dispersed iridium, at the remarkably high loading of 14.8 wt %. The rGA support offers sites for metal bonding comparable to those of metal oxides, but with the advantages of high density and a relatively high degree of uniformity, as indicated by the same turnover frequencies for catalytic hydrogenation of ethylene at low and high iridium loadings. The atomic dispersion at a high metal loadingand the high density of catalytic sites per unit of reactor volume, a key criterion for practical catalystsset this catalyst apart from those reported.

Recent work has exploited the ability of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) to isolate Fe sites that mimic the structures of sites in enzymes that catalyze selective oxidations at low temperatures, opening new pathways for the valorization of underutilized feedstocks such as methane. Questions remain as to whether the radical-rebound mechanism commonly invoked in enzymatic and homogeneous systems also applies in these rigid-framework materials, in which resisting the overoxidation of desired products is a major challenge. We demonstrate that MOFs bearing Fe­(II) sites within Fe3-μ3-oxo nodes active for conversion of CH4 + N2O mixtures (368–408 K) require steps beyond the radical-rebound mechanism to protect the desired CH3OH product. Infrared spectra and density functional theory show that CH3OH(g) is stabilized as Fe­(III)–OCH3 groups on the MOF via hydrogen atom transfer with Fe­(III)–OH groups, eliminating water. Consequently, upon addition of a protonic zeolite in inter- and intrapellet mixtures with the MOF, we observed increases in CH3OH selectivity with increasing ratio and proximity of zeolitic H+ to MOF-based Fe­(II) sites, as methanol is protected within the zeolite. We infer from the data that CH3OH(g) is formed via the radical-rebound mechanism on Fe­(II) sites but that subsequent transport and dehydration steps are required to protect CH3OH(g) from overoxidation. The results demonstrate that the radical-rebound mechanism commonly invoked in this chemistry is insufficient to explain the reactivity of these systems, that the selectivity-controlling steps involve both chemical and physical rate phenomena, as well as offering a strategy to mitigate overoxidation in these and similar systems.

Thermal stability limits of 33 imidazolium ionic liquids (ILs) immobilized on three of the most commonly used high surface area metal-oxides, SiO2, γ-Al2O3, and MgO, were investigated. ILs were chosen from a family of 13 cations and 18 anions. Results show that the acidity of C2H of an imidazolium ring is one of the key factors controlling the thermal stability. An increase in C2H bonding strength of ILs leads to an increase in their stability limits accompanied by a decrease in interionic energy. Systematic changes in IL structure, such as changes in electronic structure and size of anion/cation, methylation on C2 site, and substitution of alkyl groups on the imidazolium ring with functional groups have significant effects on thermal stability limits. Furthermore, thermal stability limits of ILs are influenced strongly by acidic character of the metal-oxide surface. Generally, as the point of zero charge (PZC) of the metal-oxide increases from SiO2 to MgO, the interactions of IL and metal-oxide dominate over interionic interactions, and metal-oxide becomes the significant factor controlling the stability limits. However, thermal stability limits of some ILs show the opposite trend, as the chemical activities of the cation functional group or the electron donating properties of the anion alter IL/metal-oxide interactions. Results presented here can help in choosing the most suitable ILs for materials involving ILs supported on metal-oxides, such as for supported ionic liquid membranes (SILM) in separation applications or for solid catalyst with ionic liquid layer (SCILL) and supported ionic liquid phase (SILP) catalysts in catalysis.