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The 1968 Rechtschaffen and Kales (R & K) sleep scoring manual was published 15 years after REM sleep was discovered. Advances in the ensuing 28 years warranted a re-look at visual scoring of sleep stages. This paper describes the work of the AASM Visual Scoring Task Force, including methodology, a literature review and the rationale behind the new rules. Reliability studies of R & K scoring were reviewed; reliability was low for stage one and moderate for slow wave sleep. Evidence indicated that K complexes and slow waves are expressed maximal frontally, spindles centrally and alpha rhythm over the occipital region. Three derivations of EEG, two of electro-oculography, and one of chin EMG were recommended. Scoring by 30-second epochs was retained. New terminology for sleep stages was proposed. Attenuation of alpha rhythm was determined to be the most valid electrophysiological marker of sleep onset. Alternative measures were proposed for non-alpha generating subjects. K complexes associated with arousals were determined to be insufficient alone to define the new stage N2. No evidence was found to justify dividing slow wave sleep into two stages. No reasons were found to alter the current slow wave amplitude criteria at any age. The phenomena of REM sleep were defined. The rules for defining onset and termination of REM sleep periods were simplified. Movement time was eliminated and major body movements defined. Studies are needed to test the reliability of the new rules. Future advances in technology may require modification of these rules with time.

This review summarizes the recent literature on the epidemiology of adult obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) from various population-based studies. Despite methodologic differences, comparisons have yielded similar prevalence rates of the OSA syndrome in various geographic regions and amongst a number of ethnic groups. Risk factors for OSA including obesity, aging, gender, menopause, and ethnicity are analyzed. We also provide discussion on adverse medical conditions associated with OSA including hypertension, stroke, congestive heart failure, coronary artery disease, cardiovascular mortality, insulin resistance, and neurocognitive dysfunction. Finally with the progression of the global obesity epidemic, we focus on the economic health care burden of OSA and the importance of recognizing the largely undiagnosed OSA population with emphasis on strategies to improve access to diagnostic resources.

Background and SignificanceSleep-related disorders are common in the general adult population, and as the population ages, the prevalence of these disorders increases. A common misconception among clinicians and the public is that this increased prevalence is a normal and expected phenomenon of aging. However, this higher prevalence of sleep disruption is often the result of the increased presence of medical, and psychosocial comorbidities in this population. The complicated multifactorial interactions that generate sleep disorders in older individuals pose important challenges to clinicians. Furthermore, many clinicians are unaware of the seriousness and potential morbidity associated with sleep problems in older people, distinct from the morbidity of concurrent disorders. As a result, these issues are often underinvestigated, or completely ignored. 1 Because of the high prevalence, complexity, and health implications associated with sleeprelated disorders in older individuals, increasing attention is now being focused on this topic. For example, a recent publication has recommended that sleep problems be approached as a "multifactorial geriatric syndrome." 2 Of major clinical concern is the strong bidirectional relationship between sleep disorders and serious medical problems in older persons. Individuals with sleep disorders are more likely to Corresponding Author: Harrison G. Bloom, M.D., AGSF, International Longevity Center-USA, 60 East 86th Street New York, NY 10028, 212.517.1308, 212.288.5450, HarrisonB@ilcusa.org NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript develop hypertension, depression, cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular disease. Conversely, individuals with any of these diseases are at higher than normal risk of developing sleep problems. 3,4 Older individuals consider quality sleep to be an essential part of good health. A Gallup survey of over 1000 Americans age 50 and older (43% of whom were age 65 or older) found that 80% answered "a great deal" when asked whether sleep was important for healthy aging. In the same survey, and contrary to the myth that older adults need less sleep, 45% believed they required more sleep now than when they were younger and 25% believed they had a sleep "problem." 5 The goal of this paper is not to present an exhaustive and comprehensive review of sleep and sleep disorders in older persons. Rather, we present an overview of sleep disorders and suggest appropriate evidence-based recommendations for assessing and treating sleep disorders in the older adult population. These recommendations have been developed by professionals with expertise in sleep disorders and in the clinical care of older people.As in many areas of clinical research, older persons are often poorly represented (or specifically excluded) in clinical sleep studies. Thus, there are less data available from randomized controlled trials for this population compared to the general adult population. Nevertheless, given the importance of the subject, and the opportunity for ...

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Annually, a small but significant portion of motor-vehicle collisions, costs, and deaths are related to OSAS. With CPAP treatment, most of these collisions, costs, and deaths can be prevented. Treatment of OSAS benefits both the patient and the public.

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