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This article presents an overview of the assumptions and unintended consequences of the widespread adoption of modern portfolio theory (MPT) in the context of the growth of large institutional investors. We examine the many so-called risk management practices and financial products that have been built on MPT since its inception in the 1950s. We argue that the very success due to its initial insights had the unintended consequence, given its widespread adoption, of contributing to the undermining the foundation of the financial system in a variety of ways. This study has relevance for both the ongoing analyses of the recent financial crisis, as well as for various existing and proposed financial reforms.

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Covenants in corporate bonds and loan agreements mitigate agency conflicts between borrowers and lenders and may provide a signal of borrower quality to help resolve information asymmetry. Performance pricing covenants in bank loans specify automatic adjustments to loan spreads based on borrowers’ subsequent performance. Our covenant signaling framework views interest‐decreasing performance pricing as a tight covenant associated with borrowers’ private information on improved future performance accompanied by reduced credit risk. This positive signal is associated with larger positive loan announcement returns and greater improvements in future borrower performance. Further, in addition to signaling value, we find that the spread impact of this class of covenant also depends on its option value and reduction in transaction costs.