Mesothelin is a cell-surface molecule over-expressed on a large fraction of carcinomas, and thus is an attractive target of immunotherapy. A molecularly targeted therapy for these cancers was created by engineering T cells to express a chimeric receptor with high affinity for human mesothelin. Lentiviral vectors were used to express a single-chain variable fragment that binds mesothelin and that is fused to signaling domains derived from T-cell receptor zeta, CD28, and CD137 (

HIV’s phenomenal capacity to vary its HLA-I-restricted peptide antigens allows it to escape from host cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs). Nevertheless, therapeutics able to target HLA-I-associated antigens, with specificity for the spectrum of preferred CTL escape mutants, could prove effective. Here we use phage display to isolate and enhance a T-cell receptor (TCR) originating from a patient CTL line and specific for the immunodominant HLA-A*02-restricted, HIVgag-specific peptide SLYNTVATL (SL9). High affinity (KD <400pM) TCRs were produced that bound with a half-life in excess of three hours, retained specificity, targeted HIV-infected cells and recognized all common escape variants of this epitope. CD8 T-cells transduced with supraphysiologic TCR produced a greater range of soluble factors and more IL2, than those transduced with natural SL9-specific TCR, and effectively controlled wildtype and mutant strains of HIV at effector-to-target ratios that could be achieved by T-cell therapy.

Human T helper 17 (TH17) cells regulate host defense, autoimmunity, and tumor immunity. Although cytokines that control human TH17 cell development have been identified, the costimulatory molecules important for TH17 cell generation are unknown. Here, we found that the inducible costimulator (ICOS) was critical for the differentiation and expansion of human TH17 cells. Human cord blood contained a subset of CD161+CD4+T cells that were recent emigrants from the thymus, expressed ICOS constitutively, and were imprinted as TH17 cells through ICOS signaling. ICOS stimulation induced c-MAF, RORC2, and T-bet expression in these cells, leading to increased secretion of interleukin-21 (IL-21), IL-17, and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) compared with cells stimulated with CD28. Conversely, CD28 ligation abrogated ICOS costimulation, dampening RORC2 expression while promoting the expression of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which led to reduced secretion of IL-17 and enhanced production of IL-22 compared with cells stimulated with ICOS. Moreover, ICOS promoted the robust expansion of IL-17+IFN-γ+ human T cells, and the antitumor activity of these cells after adoptive transfer into mice bearing large human tumors was superior to that of cells expanded with CD28. The therapeutic effectiveness of ICOS-expanded cells was associated with enhanced functionality and engraftment in vivo. These findings reveal a vital role for ICOS signaling in the generation and maintenance of human TH17 cells and suggest that components of this pathway could be therapeutically targeted to treat cancer or chronic infection and, conversely, that interruption of this pathway may have utility in multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune syndromes. These findings have provided the rationale for designing new clinical trials for tumor immunotherapy.

To facilitate the therapeutic application of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), we have developed a cell-based artificial APC (aAPC) system by engineering K562 cells with lentiviruses to direct the stable expression and secretion of a variety of co-stimulatory molecules and cytokines. Here we report the use of a combinatorial lentiviral gene transfer approach to achieve long-term stable expression of at least seven genes in the K562 parental cell line. Expression of various combinations of genes on the aAPC enables the precise determination of human T-cell activation requirements, such that aAPCs can be tailored for the optimal propagation of T-cell subsets with specific growth requirements and distinct functions. The aAPCs support ex vivo growth and long-term expansion of functional human CD8 T cells without requiring the addition of exogenous cytokines, in contrast to the use of natural APCs. Distinct populations of T cells can be expanded with aAPCs expressing CD137L (4-1BBL) and/or CD80. Finally, the aAPCs provide an efficient platform to expand genetically modified T cells and to maintain CD28 expression on CD8 T cells. Therefore, K562-based aAPCs have therapeutic potential for adoptive immunotherapies and vaccinations.

Artificial APCs (aAPCs) genetically modified to express selective costimulatory molecules provide a reproducible, cost-effective, and convenient method for polyclonal and Ag-specific expansion of human T cells for adoptive immunotherapy. Among the variety of aAPCs that have been studied, acellular beads expressing anti-CD3/anti-CD28 efficiently expand CD4+ cells, but not CD8+ T cells. Cell-based aAPCs can effectively expand cytolytic CD8+ cells, but optimal costimulatory signals have not been defined. 4-1BB, a costimulatory molecule expressed by a minority of resting CD8+ T cells, is transiently up-regulated by all CD8+ T cells following activation. We compared expansion of human cytolytic CD8+ T cells using cell-based aAPCs providing costimulation via 4-1BB vs CD28. Whereas anti-CD3/anti-CD28 aAPCs mostly expand naive cells, anti-CD3/4-1BBL aAPCs preferentially expand memory cells, resulting in superior enrichment of Ag-reactive T cells which recognize previously primed Ags and efficient expansion of electronically sorted CD8+ populations reactive toward viral or self-Ags. Using HLA-A2-Fc fusion proteins linked to 4-1BBL aAPCs, 3-log expansion of Ag-specific CD8+ CTL was induced over 14 days, whereas similar Ag-specific CD8+ T cell expansion did not occur using HLA-A2-Fc/anti-CD28 aAPCs. Furthermore, when compared with cytolytic T cells expanded using CD28 costimulation, CTL expanded using 4-1BB costimulation mediate enhanced cytolytic capacity due, in part, to NKG2D up-regulation. These results demonstrate that 4-1BB costimulation is essential for expanding memory CD8+ T cells ex vivo and is superior to CD28 costimulation for generating Ag-specific products for adoptive cell therapy.

The costimulatory requirements required for peripheral blood T regulatory cells (Tregs) are unclear. Using cell-based artificial APCs we found that CD28 but not ICOS, OX40, 4-1BB, CD27, or CD40 ligand costimulation maintained high levels of Foxp3 expression and in vitro suppressive function. Only CD28 costimulation in the presence of rapamycin consistently generated Tregs that consistently suppressed xenogeneic graft-vs-host disease in immunodeficient mice. Restimulation of Tregs after 8–12 days of culture with CD28 costimulation in the presence of rapamycin resulted in &gt;1000-fold expansion of Tregs in &lt;3 wk. Next, we determined whether other costimulatory pathways could augment the replicative potential of CD28-costimulated Tregs. We observed that while OX40 costimulation augmented the proliferative capacity of CD28-costimulated Tregs, Foxp3 expression and suppressive function were diminished. These studies indicate that the costimulatory requirements for expanding Tregs differ from those for T effector cells and, furthermore, they extend findings from mouse Tregs to demonstrate that human postthymic Tregs require CD28 costimulation to expand and maintain potent suppressive function in vivo.

IntroductionAcute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) and occurs as a result of the activation, proliferation, and effector cell function of donor T cells that, along with the release of proinflammatory cytokines, result in tissue damage. 1 Recently, a subset of CD4 ϩ T cells with potent suppressor activity, CD4 ϩ 25 ϩ regulatory T cells (Tregs), 2 have been shown to inhibit alloreactive T-cell activation and effector cell function 3,4 and GVHD lethality in murine models. [5][6][7] Thus, Tregs are attractive therapeutic tools for preventing GVHD in humans. [8][9][10][11] When administered at the time of BMT, typically Tregs must be given at approximately the same number of donor T cells (1:1 ratio) to be highly effective at preventing GVHD. [5][6][7] This poses a technical problem since Tregs are present in low frequency in the peripheral blood (ϳ 1% are CD4 ϩ CD25 br cells) 12 and contaminating CD4 ϩ 25 Ϫ T cells out-compete Tregs for expansion and result in loss of Treg suppressor cell function. 11,13 Therefore, many laboratories have been dedicated to developing new approaches for the isolation and expansion of human Tregs from adult peripheral blood without loss of suppressor cell function.Tregs express multiple tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) family members on their cell surface, including glucocorticoidinduced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR), OX40 (CD134), and 4-1BB (CD137). 14,15 While it is generally accepted that TNFR expressed on naive T cell functions contributes to T-cell survival (reviewed in Watts 16 ), the exact role of TNFR signaling in Treg generation, expansion, and suppression is unclear. Shimizu and coworkers have shown that stimulation of GITR abrogates Treg suppressor function, 17 although in other studies, McHugh et al showed that loss of suppression depends on whether or not TCR triggering and IL-2 are present before GITR engagement. 15 We have shown that blockade of CD40L signaling on Tregs increases their suppressive function and tolerogenic capacity. [18][19][20] Since signaling via CD40L and GITR can reduce suppressor cell function, neither would seem advantageous for human Treg expansion cultures, so we focused on OX40 and 4-1BB. While OX40 signals do not appear to increase in vitro anti-CD3 mAb/ APC-driven Treg proliferation, 21-23 a recent report indicates that OX40 signals can increase endogenous Treg survival in vivo, 24 although other studies indicated that OX40 signals provided during ex vivo Treg expansion inhibited rodent Treg suppressor function and foxP3 expression. 21,22,24 In humans, OX40L-mediated signaling has been reported to inhibit the generation of IL-10-producing T-regulatory type 1 cells from naive and memory CD4 ϩ T cells and to shut down both IL-10 production and suppressor cell function. 25 4-1BB also is expressed on resting Tregs and up-regulated within 2 days after in vitro anti-CD3 mAb plus IL-2 stimulation. 26 In vitro anti-CD3 mAb or antigen-induce...

Cytokines dimerize their receptors, with binding of the “second chain” triggering signaling. In the interleukin (IL)-4/13 system, different cell types express varying levels of alternative second receptor chains (γc or IL-13Rα1), forming functionally distinct Type-I or Type-II complexes. We manipulated the affinity and specificity of second chain recruitment by human IL-4. A Type-I receptor-selective IL-4 ‘superkine’ with 3700-fold higher affinity for γc was 3-10 fold more potent than wild-type IL-4. Conversely, a variant with high affinity for IL-13Rα1 more potently activated cells expressing the Type-II receptor, and induced differentiation of dendritic cells from monocytes, implicating the Type-II receptor in this process. Superkines exhibited signaling advantages on cells with lower second chain levels. Comparative transcriptional analysis reveals that the superkines induce largely redundant gene expression profiles. Variable second chain levels can be exploited to redirect cytokines towards distinct cell subsets and elicit novel actions, potentially improving the selectivity of cytokine therapy.