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Abstract'The Hawthorne Effect' is a phrase frequently employed in textbooks and other academic discourse. It appears to have been coined over 50 years ago and alludes to the outcome of research undertaken two decades earlier. This paper seeks to elucidate how the term 'Hawthorne Effect' has come to be used. A variety of texts will be presented to demonstrate the many different and often contradictory meanings ascribed to the term. A consideration of Guerin's review of research in social facilitation suggests the complexity of issues that seem to be involved in the use of the term 'Hawthorne Effect' is such that greater precision is required. Ultimately, we conclude, the term has no useful role in the discussion of research findings. Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.The phrase 'Hawthorne Effect' derives from a series of experiments carried out in the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company, Chicago, between 1927 and 1933. The definitive account of these experiments is generally regarded to be the book Management and the worker by Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939). Although the research was quite widely discussed before that date, this book offered 'for the first time a continuous history of the entire series of experiments' (Mayo, 1939, p. xi). Roethlisberger was from Harvard University; Dickson was a manager of the Western Electric Company.The area of research may be termed organizational or occupational psychology or sociology. However, the fact that, as we intend to demonstrate, the term is used outside that field suggests that the findings are regarded as having wider implications. The main aim of this paper is to examine critically how the term Hawthorne Effect is used in psychology and related areas of research.The phrase Hawthorne Effect does not occur in Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939). The first use of the term in print appears to be in a chapter contributed to an edited research methods text. Referring to 'the famous Hawthorne experiments' French (1953) wrote:From a methodological point of view, the most interesting finding was what we might call the 'Hawthorne effect'. In order to manipulate more precisely the physical factors affecting production,

A substantial portion ofB. F. Skinner's scholarship was devoted to developing methods and terms for a scientific study of behavior. Three concepts central to scientific accounts-cause, explanation, and theory-are examined to illustrate the distinction between mechanistic and relational frameworks and radical behaviorism's relationship to those frameworks. Informed by a scientific tradition that explicitly rejects mechanistic interpretations, radical behaviorism provides a distinctive stance in contemporary psychology. The present analysis suggests that radical behaviorism makes closer contact with the "new world view" advocated by physicists and philosophers of science than does much of contemporary psychology. My sincere thanks go to Derek Blackman and Mike Harries for the time they gave to make substantive and editorial comments.

Conceptually, the use of the technical term naming appears to be a broad term that describes several subtypes of emergent verbal behavior. Miguel (The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 32, 125-138, Miguel, 2016) introduces the concept of subtypes of naming, specifically common bidirectional naming and intraverbal bidirectional naming. He defines common bidirectional naming as "the process of different stimuli evoking the same speaker and listener behaviour and becoming members of the same class" (p. 130). A review of the literature on common bidirectional naming yielded some ambiguities related to differences in how researchers in the field defined naming. This article suggests that common bidirectional naming may be further dissected to yield six subtypes of naming. We aligned previous research on emergent verbal behavior with a unified taxonomy as part of a larger proposed classification framework on naming. The impact of identifying the subtypes of common bidirectional naming on skill acquisition and curriculum design is discussed. Finally, recommendations are made for future research based on this framework. Keywords Naming. Common bidirectional naming. Emergent verbal behavior. Incidental learning The importance of specificity and technicality in writing within a science is essential. Within the field of behavior analysis, the technical term naming has

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a precision teaching (PT) framework on the mathematical ability of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. We also examined if students of moderate mathematical ability could perform as well as their peers with fewer difficulties with their math skills. Sixteen students participated and were divided into three groups. One group engaged in PT, and the other two groups functioned as comparisons. The PT group practiced six skills introduced linearly. An A-B design was used for the five component skills, and a multiple baseline across participants design was used for the composite skill (addition). The intervention led to a significant improvement in all skills, including addition, and this was associated with a large effect size; student performance met or exceeded that of their peers. Overall, the findings suggest that PT is an efficient and effective approach for teaching students with IDDs.