Nanocomposites, consisting of a polymeric matrix and nanosized elements as reinforcement, have attracted significant scientific attention because of their high mechanical performance. A large variety of nanocomposites have been prepared using bio-based materials as a matrix and nanoreinforcement, so that it can reduce the dependence on nondegradable products and move to a sustainable materials basis. The objective of this study was to isolate nanocellulose from empty fruit bunch (EFB) fiber and their reinforcing effect on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/starch blend films. A series of PVA/starch films with different content of nanocellulose were prepared by solution casting method. Nanocellulose fiber with diameters ranging from 4 to 15 nm has been successfully prepared. On the other hand, PVA/starch films reinforced with nanocellulose fiber possess significantly improved properties compared to unreinforced film. From the results, PVA/starch films with the addition of 5% (v/v) of nanocellulose exhibited best combination of properties. This nanocomposite was found to have tensile strength at about 5.694 MPa and elongation at break was 481.85%. In addition to good mechanical properties, this nanocomposite has good water resistance and biodegradability.

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Progressive freeze concentration (PFC) is a process where only a large single ice crystal is formed in the system and grown on the cooling surface so that the separation between the ice crystal and the mother solution is very easy. This makes the system very simple and leads to a lower cost. The conventional setup of PFC produces ice with high purity but lower productivity than suspension freeze concentration (SFC). The volume of ice produced is also usually low. Hence, continued areas of the development for PFC system include the quest for improved productivity and better efficiency. Different kinds of design have been investigated which are easy to operate and cost-effective besides the ability to obtain high quality of product and better efficiency of the system. The PFC system is recognized as a good alternative if high quality products can be produced with higher productivity. In this article, previous researches on PFC designs were reviewed for the purpose of providing an understanding on methods of designing a PFC system and also to provide references for future application of PFC.

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Progressive cryoconcentration (PC) is gaining acceptance in solution concentration process as it could provide an easy separation and ice purification with relatively low energy. In fact, the advantages of PC process as compared to the other concentration methods have led the growth of related studies that aim to provide the best system or condition for the separation process involved. Apart from the provision of appropriate equipment, the PC process should also be conducted at its optimum conditions of operating parameters involved, which could give the highest separation efficiency.Hence, relationship between the parameters, which covers both manipulated and determinant parameters should be studied first. This review summarizes the previous conducted studies on the effect of various operating parameters on the PC performance, which includes effect of coolant temperature, solution flowrate, initial solution concentration, freezing time, ice crystal front growth rate and stirring rate.

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