Mammalian sperm must undergo a series of biochemical and physiological modifications, collectively called capacitation, in the female reproductive tract prior to the acrosome reaction (AR). The mechanisms of these modifications are not well characterized though protein kinases were shown to be involved in the regulation of intracellular Ca 21 during both capacitation and the AR. In the present review, we summarize some of the signaling events that are involved in capacitation. During the capacitation process, phosphatidyl-inositol-3-kinase (PI3K) is phosphorylated/activated via a protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent cascade, and downregulated by protein kinase C a (PKCa). PKCa is active at the beginning of capacitation, resulting in PI3K inactivation. During capacitation, PKCa as well as PP1c2 is degraded by a PKA-dependent mechanism, allowing the activation of PI3K. The activation of PKA during capacitation depends mainly on cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) produced by the bicarbonate-dependent soluble adenylyl cyclase. This activation of PKA leads to an increase in actin polymerization, an essential process for the development of hyperactivated motility, which is necessary for successful fertilization. Actin polymerization is mediated by PIP 2 in two ways: first, PIP 2 acts as a cofactor for phospholipase D (PLD) activation, and second, as a molecule that binds and inhibits actin-severing proteins such as gelsolin. Tyrosine phosphorylation of gelsolin during capacitation by Src family kinase (SFK) is also important for its inactivation. Prior to the AR, gelsolin is released from PIP 2 and undergoes dephosphorylation/activation, resulting in fast F-actin depolymerization, leading to the AR.

To acquire fertilization competence, spermatozoa should undergo several biochemical changes in the female reproductive tract, known as capacitation. The capacitated spermatozoon can interact with the egg zona pellucida resulting in the occurrence of the acrosome reaction, a process that allowed its penetration into the egg and fertilization. Sperm capacitation requires actin polymerization, whereas F-actin must disperse prior to the acrosome reaction. Here, we suggest that the actin-severing protein, gelsolin, is inactive during capacitation and is activated prior to the acrosome reaction. The release of bound gelsolin from phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP 2 ) by PBP10, a peptide containing the PIP 2 -binding domain of gelsolin, or by activation of phospholipase C, which hydrolyzes PIP 2 , caused rapid Ca 2؉ -dependent F-actin depolymerization as well as enhanced acrosome reaction. Using immunoprecipitation assays, we showed that the tyrosine kinase SRC and gelsolin coimmunoprecipitate, and activating SRC by adding 8-bromo-cAMP (8-Br-cAMP) enhanced the amount of gelsolin in this precipitate. Moreover, 8-Br-cAMP enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation of gelsolin and its binding to PIP 2(4,5) , both of which inactivated gelsolin, allowing actin polymerization during capacitation. This actin polymerization was blocked by inhibiting the Src family kinases, suggesting that gelsolin is activated under these conditions. These results are further supported by our finding that PBP10 was unable to cause complete F-actin breakdown in the presence of 8-BrcAMP or vanadate. In conclusion, inactivation of gelsolin during capacitation occurs by its binding to PIP 2 and tyrosine phosphorylation by SRC. The release of gelsolin from PIP 2 together with its dephosphorylation enables gelsolin activation, resulting in the acrosome reaction.

Actin polymerization and development of hyperactivated (HA) motility are two processes that take place during sperm capacitation. In previous studies, we demonstrated that the increase in F-actin during capacitation depends upon inactivation of the actin severing protein, gelsolin, by its binding to phosphatydilinositol-4, 5-bisphosphate (PIP2). Here, we showed for the first time the involvement of PIP2/gelsolin in human sperm motility before and during capacitation. Activation of gelsolin by causing its release from PIP2 inhibited sperm motility, which could be restored by adding PIP2 to the cells. Reduction of PIP2 synthesis inhibited actin polymerization and motility, and increasing PIP2 synthesis enhanced these activities. Furthermore, sperm demonstrating low motility contained low levels of PIP2 and F-actin. During capacitation there was an increase in PIP2 and F-actin levels in the sperm head and a decrease in the tail. In sperm with high motility, gelsolin was mainly localized to the sperm head before capacitation, whereas in low motility sperm, most of the gelsolin was localized to the tail before capacitation and translocated to the head during capacitation. We also showed that phosphorylation of gelsolin on tyrosine-438 depends on its binding to PIP2. Activation of phospholipase C by Ca(2+)-ionophore or by activating the epidermal-growth-factor-receptor inhibits tyrosine phosphorylation of gelsolin. In conclusion, the data indicate that the increase of PIP2 and/or F-actin in the head during capacitation enhances gelsolin translocation to the head. As a result the decrease of gelsolin in the tail allows keeping high level of F-actin in the tail, which is essential for the development of HA motility.

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Actin polymerization and development of hyperactivated (HA) motility are two processes that take place during sperm capacitation. Actin polymerization occurs during capacitation and prior to the acrosome reaction, fast F-actin breakdown takes place. The increase in F-actin during capacitation depends upon inactivation of the actin severing protein, gelsolin, by its binding to phosphatydilinositol-4, 5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and its phosphorylation on tyrosine-438 by Src. Activation of gelsolin following its release from PIP2 is known to cause F-actin breakdown and inhibition of sperm motility, which can be restored by adding PIP2 to the cells. Reduction of PIP2 synthesis inhibits actin polymerization and motility, while increasing PIP2 synthesis enhances these activities. Furthermore, sperm demonstrating low motility contained low levels of PIP2 and F-actin. During capacitation there was an increase in PIP2 and F-actin levels in the sperm head and a decrease in the tail. In spermatozoa with high motility, gelsolin was mainly localized to the sperm head before capacitation, whereas in low motility sperm, most of the gelsolin was localized to the tail before capacitation and translocated to the head during capacitation. We also showed that phosphorylation of gelsolin on tyrosine-438 depends upon its binding to PIP2. Stimulation of phospholipase C, by Ca2+-ionophore or by activating the epidermal-growth-factor-receptor, inhibits tyrosine phosphorylation of gelsolin and enhances enzyme activity. In conclusion, these data indicate that the increase of PIP2 and/or F-actin in the head during capacitation enhances gelsolin translocation to the head. As a result, the decrease of gelsolin in the tail allows the maintenance of high levels of F-actin in this structure, which is essential for the development of HA motility.

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The spermatozoon is capable of fertilizing an oocyte only after undergoing several biochemical changes in the female reproductive tract, referred to as capacitation. The capacitated spermatozoon interacts with the egg zona pellucida and undergoes the acrosome reaction, which enables its penetration into the egg and fertilization. Actin dynamics play a major role throughout all these processes. Actin polymerization occurs during capacitation, whereas prior to the acrosome reaction, F-actin must undergo depolymerization. In the present study, we describe the presence of the actin-severing protein, cofilin, in human sperm. We examined the function and regulation of cofilin during human sperm capacitation and compared it to gelsolin, an actin-severing protein that was previously investigated by our group. In contrast to gelsolin, we found that cofilin is mainly phosphorylated/inhibited at the beginning of capacitation, and dephosphorylation occurs towards the end of the process. In addition, unlike gelsolin, cofilin phosphorylation is not affected by changing the cellular levels of PIP2. Despite the different regulation of the two proteins, the role of cofilin appears similar to that of gelsolin, and its activation leads to actin depolymerization, inhibition of sperm motility and induction of the acrosome reaction. Moreover, like gelsolin, cofilin translocates from the tail to the head during capacitation. In summary, gelsolin and cofilin play a similar role in F-actin depolymerization prior to the acrosome reaction but their pattern of phosphorylation/inactivation during the capacitation process is different. Thus, for the sperm to achieve high levels of F-actin along the capacitation process, both proteins must be inactivated at different times and, in order to depolymerize F-actin, both must be activated prior to the acrosome reaction.

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