1 Avian malaria and related haemosporidian parasites (genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, and 2 Leucocytozoon) affect bird demography, species range limits, and community structure, yet they 3 remain unsurveyed in most bird communities and populations. We conducted a community-level 4 survey of these vector-transmitted parasites in New Mexico, USA, to describe their diversity, 5 abundance, and host associations. We focused on the breeding-bird community in the transition 6 zone between piñon-juniper woodland and ponderosa pine forests (elevational range: 2150-2460 7 meters). We screened 186 birds representing 49 species using both standard PCR and microscopy 8 techniques to detect infections of all three avian haemosporidian genera. We detected infections 9 in 68 out of 186 birds (36.6%), the highest proportion of which were infected with Haemoproteus 10 (20.9%), followed by Leucocytozoon (13.4%), then Plasmodium (8.0%). We sequenced mtDNA 11 for 77 infections representing 43 haplotypes (25 Haemoproteus, 12 Leucocytozoon, 6 12 Plasmodium). When compared to all previously known haplotypes in the MalAvi and GenBank 13 databases, 63% (27) of the haplotypes we recovered were novel. We found evidence for host 14 specificity at the avian clade and species level, but this specificity was variable among parasite 15 genera, in that Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon were each restricted to three avian groups (out 16 of six), while Plasmodium occurred in all groups except non-passerines. We found striking 17 variation in infection rate among host species, with nearly universal infection among vireos and 18 no infection among nuthatches. Using rarefaction and extrapolation, we estimated the total avian 19 haemosporidian diversity to be 70 haplotypes (95% CI: 43-98); thus, we may have already 20 sampled ~60% of the diversity of avian haemosporidians in New Mexico pine forests. It is 21 possible that future studies will find higher diversity in microhabitats or host species that are 22 under-sampled or unsampled in the present study. Fortunately, this study is fully extendable via 23 PeerJ Preprints | https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.2997v2 | CC BY 4.0 Open Access | rec
AIM: To describe a temporal cluster of avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) at an Operation Nest Egg TM (ONE) site in Rotorua which caused mortality in a juvenile kiwi and had high population prevalence in brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli).METHODS: A 70-day-old wild-born captive brown kiwi was submitted for post-mortem examination to Massey University Wildlife Health Centre. Post-mortem examination and histopathology were used to determine the cause of death. Plasmodium specific PCR analysis was subsequently conducted on tissue samples and 108 individual blood samples from living kiwi from five ONE breeding sites and two rowi kiwi crèches. Positive PCR products were sequenced to identify the Plasmodium spp. isolated. Where possible, blood smear microscopic examination was used to determine the level of parasitaemia in the infected kiwi.RESULTS: Plasmodium spp. was detected in the kiwi which died and it showed histopathological evidence of disseminated protozoal infection. A high prevalence of Plasmodium was found in blood samples from kiwi concurrently residing at ONE Rotorua by blood smear microscopy (22/32, 68%) and PCR (25/ 32, 78%). All kiwi with positive blood smears had only a low level of peripheral parasitaemia at the time of sampling. However, 0/17 additional kiwi sampled at Rotorua 3 weeks after the juvenile's death, 0/23 Rotorua juveniles sampled 1 year later and 0/59 kiwi from the five other locations were positive for Plasmodium by these methods. Sequencing analysis revealed a cosmopolitan Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum lineage in all positive birds.CONCLUSIONS: This is the first description of an avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) infection associated with mortality and a high population prevalence in brown kiwi at a ONE site in the 20 years of the programme. The study suggests that this level of infection in a population of kiwi was unusual and provides evidence in support of continued vigilance of disease risks associated with this and other conservation management programmes involving wildlife translocation.
Blood samples were collected from 65 free-ranging birds from six species in the southern North Island of New Zealand. Sera from the birds were tested for the presence of avipoxvirus (APV) antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and blood cells from 55 birds were also tested for Plasmodium spp. by PCR. Forty-five birds (69.2%) tested seropositive to APV. Song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) presented the highest seroprevalence at 100% (4/4), followed by Eurasian blackbirds (Turdus merula) (96.86%, 31/32), chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs) (54.55%, 6/11), starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) (25%, 3/12), greenfinches (Carduelis chloris) (25%, 1/4), and European goldfinches (Carduelis carduelis) (0%, 0/2). Plasmodium spp. DNA was detected in 15/55 birds (27.3%), including 11 Eurasian blackbirds, one song thrush, and three starlings. Eight Eurasian blackbird isolates (73%) grouped within the subgenus Novyella. Two Eurasian blackbird isolates and the song thrush isolate clustered within a different group with previously reported lineages LINN1 and AFTRU5. In addition, all three starling isolates clustered within the well-characterized lineage Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum GRW06. All Plasmodium-positive Eurasian blackbirds and the song thrush were seropositive to APV, whereas only 67% of Plasmodium-positive starlings showed evidence of previous exposure to APV. A significant relationship between birds seropositive to APV and birds infected by Plasmodium spp. was observed (chi2 = 5.69, df = 1, P = 0.0086). To the authors' knowledge this is the first report describing the seroprevalence of APV and its association with Plasmodium spp. infection in introduced bird species in New Zealand.
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