Avian malaria in New Zealand

Abstract

1 Avian malaria and related haemosporidian parasites (genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, and 2 Leucocytozoon) affect bird demography, species range limits, and community structure, yet they 3 remain unsurveyed in most bird communities and populations. We conducted a community-level 4 survey of these vector-transmitted parasites in New Mexico, USA, to describe their diversity, 5 abundance, and host associations. We focused on the breeding-bird community in the transition 6 zone between piñon-juniper woodland and ponderosa pine forests (elevational range: 2150-2460 7 meters). We screened 186 birds representing 49 species using both standard PCR and microscopy 8 techniques to detect infections of all three avian haemosporidian genera. We detected infections 9 in 68 out of 186 birds (36.6%), the highest proportion of which were infected with Haemoproteus 10 (20.9%), followed by Leucocytozoon (13.4%), then Plasmodium (8.0%). We sequenced mtDNA 11 for 77 infections representing 43 haplotypes (25 Haemoproteus, 12 Leucocytozoon, 6 12 Plasmodium). When compared to all previously known haplotypes in the MalAvi and GenBank 13 databases, 63% (27) of the haplotypes we recovered were novel. We found evidence for host 14 specificity at the avian clade and species level, but this specificity was variable among parasite 15 genera, in that Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon were each restricted to three avian groups (out 16 of six), while Plasmodium occurred in all groups except non-passerines. We found striking 17 variation in infection rate among host species, with nearly universal infection among vireos and 18 no infection among nuthatches. Using rarefaction and extrapolation, we estimated the total avian 19 haemosporidian diversity to be 70 haplotypes (95% CI: 43-98); thus, we may have already 20 sampled ~60% of the diversity of avian haemosporidians in New Mexico pine forests. It is 21 possible that future studies will find higher diversity in microhabitats or host species that are 22 under-sampled or unsampled in the present study. Fortunately, this study is fully extendable via 23 PeerJ Preprints | https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.2997v2 | CC BY 4.0 Open Access | rec

In situ hybridization and sequence analysis reveal an association of Plasmodium spp. with mortalities in wild passerine birds in Austria

“…A systematic investigation of carcasses from dead wild birds has never been undertaken so far. Still, in contrast to Hawaii (Atkinson and LaPointe 2009) and New Zealand (Schoener et al 2014), where avian malaria has been identified to have caused mass mortality of endemic wild birds leading to (near) extinction of certain species, the mortality episodes seemed to have been locally and temporally restricted in Austrian passerines. The available data do not provide clues on the potential causes for excessive propagation of the parasites in individual birds.…”

Description, molecular characterisation, diagnostics and life cycle of Plasmodium elongatum (lineage pERIRUB01), the virulent avian malaria parasite

“…This parasite is able to develop in non-adapted birds such as brown kiwi and different species of penguins Howe et al, 2012). Recent studies reveal the number of records of P. elongatum in introduced and endemic New Zealand birds (Alley et al, 2010;Castro et al, 2011;Baillie et al, 2012;Howe et al, 2012;Clark et al, 2014;Schoener et al, 2014). The impact of avian malaria on native New Zealand birds is well illustrated by two cases in which 60% of New Zealand dotterels, Charadrius obscurus, and 80% of native mohua, Mohoua ochrocephala, were killed by Plasmodium spp.…”

Is Avian Malaria Playing a Role in Native Bird Declines in New Zealand? Testing Hypotheses along an Elevational Gradient

“…Plasmodium parasites have also been confirmed in multiple non-native species in New Zealand [17–21], with the suggestion that some may be acting as reservoirs for spillover infection to native species [19]. The exact number of Plasmodium lineages (defined by unique sequences of parasite mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA) in New Zealand is unclear, but as many as 17 have been reported, with four generally accepted non-native lineage clusters [17,20,22]. Additional unresolved lineages have been reported, including some speculated to be native to New Zealand [23].…”