Summary1. Consistent individual differences in behaviour are seen in numerous animals and could be maintained by life-history trade-offs and integrated within a pace-of-life syndrome involving physiological and locomotor traits. 2. Lizard species are characterized by inter-specific variation in activity and foraging behaviours associated with differences in locomotor performances and metabolic rates. Similar syndromes could exist within species, but have not been investigated so far. 3. We scored the exploratory behaviour of newborn common lizards (Zootoca vivipara) using a neutral arena test and measured concomitantly resting metabolic rate (RMR), maximal sprint speed (MSS) and endurance capacity. Animals were released in outdoor enclosures exposed to avian predation and measured again for the same traits 1 year later. 4. Common lizards displayed consistent individual differences over a week for an exploration score associated with high activity in the neutral arena. Individual differences in three activity scores were also consistent over the first year of life. 5. Correlations among behavioural, metabolic and locomotor traits were weak, except for a marginally significant, positive correlation between exploration score and MSS and endurance at the age of 1 year. 6. Correlational survival selection was found for RMR and exploration score such that newborns with low exploration score and high RMR and newborns with high exploration score and low RMR survived better. Correlational growth selection was also found with faster growth in newborns with low exploration score and high RMR. 7. The results are discussed against recent hypotheses to explain the maintenance of animal temperaments.
Cette chronique retrace les grandes étapes de l'histoire des MOOC, ou Massive Open Online Courses, depuis l'apparition du MIT OpenCourseWare jusqu'à janvier 2013, en se focalisant sur les plates-formes américaines (Coursera, edX et Udacity). Elle présente les approches pédagogiques sous-tendant les différents modèles de cours et notamment la distinction entre MOOC connectivistes comme le premier MOOC francophone Itypa (cMOOC) et ceux orientés vers la transmission des connaissances (xMOOC). Des exemples de déroulement des cours sont ensuite brièvement décrits. La participation au cours Designing a New Learning Environment de la plateforme Venture Lab permet de décrire certains points clés des cMOOC. Sont enfin discutés des problèmes généraux liés aux MOOC (certification, modèles économiques...) et présenté l'écosystème qui se crée progressivement autour de ces cours. MOOC, cMOOC, xMOOC, Udacity, Coursera, edX, cours en ligne ABSTRACT : This chronicle describes the main steps of the history of MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), from the launch of MIT OpenCourseWare until January 2013; it focuses on U.S. platforms (Coursera, Udacity and edX). It presents the underlying pedagogical approaches, and more specifically the distinction between connectivists MOOCs like Itypa (cMOOC) and those oriented towards knowledge transmission (xMOOC). Some courses are briefly described, including the connectivist MOOC Designing a New Learning Environment from Venture Lab. Finally we talk about general issues such as certification and business models, and present the rise of a new ecosystem associated with MOOCs.
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