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In Mediterranean forests and rangelands, the supply of important ecosystem services can decrease or cease as a consequence of disturbances and climatic oscillations. Land managers can sometimes prevent or mitigate the negative effects of disturbances through appropriate land management choices. In this study, we assess the contribution of land management practices (LMPs) to the resilience of eight Mediterranean forests and rangelands to multiple disturbances. The study uses a transdisciplinary approach, involving scientists, land managers, and local administrators. Data about disturbances, ecosystem services, the role of LMPs, and the resistance of LMPs to disturbances are combined using a semiquantitative index and analysed to evaluate how the LMPs implemented are suited to the disturbances affecting each study site. Our results indicate that the practices analysed are particularly effective in improving resilience of ecosystems against wildfires and torrential rainfalls. However, droughts are more difficult to address, and the examined practices were heavily affected by their occurrence. Tree planting appears to be highly affected by disturbances. Practices that selectively reduce the amount of vegetation appear to be beneficial in fostering recovery of ecosystems. Our assessment also suggests that it is particularly difficult to increase resilience to droughts and fires simultaneously. Practices that aimed to mitigate the impact of land use did not always prove valuable in terms of resilience. Finally, study sites that included efforts to address disturbances in their management objectives also displayed practices making the biggest contribution to resilience.

Abstract:Wildfires have always been a part of the history of Mediterranean forests. However, forests are not always certain to regenerate after a wildfire. Whether they do depends on many factors, some of which may be influenced by land management activities. Failure to regenerate will cause a regime shift in the ecosystem, reducing the provision of ecosystem services and ultimately leading to desertification. How can we increase the resilience of Mediterranean forests to fire? Our approach to answering this question was twofold: first, we reviewed the literature to investigate chains of processes that allowed forests to regenerate (which we label Regeneration Mechanisms, or RMs); and second, we assessed the impact of selected management practices documented in the WOCAT database on these RMs. For the assessment, we evaluated the relation between the benefits and disadvantages of the land management practices on the one hand, and the hindering and supporting factors of the RMs on the other. We identified three distinct RMs that enable Mediterranean forests to recover, as well as the time frame before and after a fire in which they are at work, and factors that can hinder or support resilience. The three RMs enabling a forest to regenerate after a fire consist of regeneration (1) from a seed bank; (2) from resprouting individuals; and (3) from unburned plants that escaped the fire. Management practices were grouped into four categories: (1) fuel breaks; (2) fuel management; (3) afforestation; and (4) mulching. We assessed how and under what conditions land management modifies the ecosystem's resilience. The results show that land management influences resilience by interacting with resilience mechanisms before and after the fire, and not just by modifying the fire regime. Our analysis demonstrates a need for adaptive-i.e., context-and time-specific-management strategies.

One of the most challenging issues in Mediterranean ecosystems to date has been to understand the emergence of discontinuous changes or catastrophic shifts. In the era of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, which encompass ideas around Land Degradation Neutrality, advancing this understanding has become even more critical and urgent. The aim of this paper is to synthesize insights into the drivers, processes and management of catastrophic shifts to highlight ways forward for the management of Mediterranean ecosystems. We use a multidisciplinary approach that extends beyond the typical single site, single scale, single approach studies in the current literature. We link applied and theoretical ecology at multiple scales with analyses and modeling of

11Wildfires have always been a part of the history of Mediterranean forests. However, forest 12 regeneration after a wildfire is not certain. It depends on many factors, some of which may be 13 influenced by land management activities. Failure of regeneration will cause a regime shift in the 14 ecosystem, reducing the provision of ecosystem services and ultimately leading to desertification. 15How can we increase Mediterranean forests' resilience to fire? To answer this question, we did a 16 literature review, investigating chains of processes that allow forests to regenerate (which we label 17 "regeneration mechanisms"), and assessed the impact of selected management practices 18 documented in the WOCAT database on the regeneration mechanisms. 19We identified three distinct regeneration mechanisms that enable Mediterranean forests to recover, 20 as well as the time frame before and after a fire in which they are at work, and factors that can hinder 21 or support resilience. The three regeneration mechanisms enabling a forest to regenerate after a fire