Self-efficacy is an important concept for understanding learning and achievement. The concept covers students' self-confidence and their expectations for future performances. Students' learning experiences are crucial for the development of self-efficacy beliefs, which in the next round may affect students' achievements. The present study explores how self-efficacy can be contextualized with information and communication technology in initially 15 countries. A theoretical model is built and tested in each country based on data from the International Computer and Information Literacy Study 2013. The analyses show that students' self-regulation, experience with technology and socioeconomic background explain the variation in their ICT self-efficacy. Further, gender, selfefficacy and socioeconomic background play an important role for understanding students' computer and information literacy. This indicates that ICT self-efficacy is positively related to computer and information literacy when controlled for other student characteristics and background contextual variables. However, the results also reveal a clear distinction between measures of ICT self-efficacy one hand and computer and information literacy on the other. It is therefore necessary to continue elaborating on the differences between what students belief they can do when using ICT and their actual performance with ICT.
IntroductionEstimating the impact of ICT on learning is a daunting task for many reasons. First, the concepts need to be defined and then they must be properly measured. What do we mean by ICT? Are we referring to ICT infrastructures or to their actual use? Are the location of the infrastructures and what students do when they use ICT relevant? Is the intensity of use an important factor? Similar problems are encountered when trying to define and measure the concept of learning: are we referring to specific skills, competences, domains (e.g. mathematics, science or reading), to the performance in standardised tests at the national level, such as the British General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), or at the international level such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS), and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), or to some other more holistic concept of learning? Things become even more complex when trying to capture the relationship between ICT use and learning (however defined). The same ICT infrastructures and intensity of use can give rise to different learning outcomes, due to the interplay of many factors (e.g. the degree of ICT confidence of teachers, students and parents, the accessibility of ICT resources at home, school or other relevant environment, peer effects, etc.).In this article, we try to shed light on some of these questions, exploiting the features of the 2009 PISA ICT familiarity questionnaire that, for the first time, provides information on the type of activities 15-year-old students perform using ICT. Our main question is 'How are the type and intensity of ICT use related to students' PISA test-scores? ' We are able to go beyond the simple dichotomisation between school vs. home (intensive) use of ICT (Spiezia, 2010) and, by looking at intensity in the context of different types of activities -from gaming to problem solving -we are able to better understand the links between ICT and learning (as measured by results in the PISA standardised tests). Moreover, by adopting a cross-country perspective, we can test whether the signs and magnitudes of the correlation coefficients between PISA test scores and intensity of ICT use in the various activities are country-specific or homogenous across countries and whether they are sensitive to the domain considered (i.e. language of instruction, mathematics and science). The soundness of our approach is confirmed by the fact that our results are fairly general, both across countries and domains.This article is organised as follows. Section 2 summarises our view on the main causal relationships between ICT use and learning outcomes. Section 3 reviews the literature that, using econometric methodologies applied to large datasets, has tried to assess the impact of ICT use on students' performance in standardised tests 1 . Section 4 presents the main results of our recent research on PISA 2009(Biagi & Loi, 2012 and Section 5 concludes.
The purpose of this study was to examine factors predicting lower secondary school students’ digital competence and to explore differences between students when it comes to digital competence. Results from a digital competence test and survey in lower secondary school will be presented. It is important to learn more about and investigate what characterizes students’ digital competence. A sample of 852 ninth-grade Norwegian students from 38 schools participated in the study. The students answered a 26 item multiple-choice digital competence test and a self-report questionnaire about family background, motivation, and previous grades. Structural equation modeling was used to test a model of the hypothesised relationship between family background, mastery orientation, previous achievements, and digital competence. The results indicate variation in digital competence among the ninth-graders. Further, analyses showed that students’ conditions at home, i.e., language integration and cultural capital, together with mastery orientation and academic achievements predict students digital competence. This study indicates that that there is evidence of digital diversity between lower secondary students. It does not seem like the development of digital competence among the students happens automatically. Students’ family background and school performance are the most important factors. Therefore, as this study shows, it is necessary to further investigate how schools can identify students’ level of competence and to develop plans and actions for how schools can help to try to equalize differences.
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