The Bicoid (Bcd) gradient in Drosophila has long been a model for the action of a morphogen in establishing embryonic polarity. However, it is now clear that bcd is a unique feature of higher Diptera. An evolutionarily ancient gene, orthodenticle (otd), has a bcd-like role in the beetle Tribolium. Unlike the Bcd gradient, which arises by diffusion of protein from an anteriorly localized messenger RNA, the Tribolium Otd gradient forms by translational repression of otd mRNA by a posteriorly localized factor. These differences in gradient formation are correlated with differences in modes of embryonic patterning. Drosophila uses long germ embryogenesis, where the embryo derives from the entire anterior-posterior axis, and all segments are patterned at the blastoderm stage, before gastrulation. In contrast, Tribolium undergoes short germ embryogenesis: the embryo arises from cells in the posterior of the egg, and only anterior segments are patterned at the blastoderm stage, with the remaining segments arising after gastrulation from a growth zone. Here we describe the role of otd in the long germband embryo of the wasp Nasonia vitripennis. We show that Nasonia otd maternal mRNA is localized at both poles of the embryo, and resulting protein gradients pattern both poles. Thus, localized Nasonia otd has two major roles that allow long germ development. It activates anterior targets at the anterior of the egg in a manner reminiscent of the Bcd gradient, and it is required for pre-gastrulation expression of posterior gap genes.

One of the earliest steps of embryonic development is the establishment of polarity along the anteroposterior axis. Extensive studies of Drosophila embryonic development have elucidated mechanisms for establishing polarity, while studies with other model systems have found that many of these molecular components are conserved through evolution. One exception is Bicoid, the master organizer of anterior development in Drosophila and higher dipterans, which is not conserved. Thus, the study of anteroposterior patterning in insects that lack Bicoid can provide insight into the evolution of the diversity of body plan patterning networks. To this end, we have established the long germ parasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis as a model for comparative studies with Drosophila. Here we report that, in Nasonia, a gradient of localized caudal mRNA directs posterior patterning, whereas, in Drosophila, the gradient of maternal Caudal protein is established through translational repression by Bicoid of homogeneous caudal mRNA. Loss of caudal function in Nasonia results in severe segmentation defects. We show that Nasonia caudal is an activator of gap gene expression that acts far towards the anterior of the embryo, placing it atop a cascade of early patterning. By contrast, activation of gap genes in flies relies on redundant functions of Bicoid and Caudal, leading to a lack of dramatic action on gap gene expression: caudal instead plays a limited role as an activator of pair-rule gene expression. These studies, together with studies in short germ insects, suggest that caudal is an ancestral master organizer of patterning, and that its role has been reduced in higher dipterans such as Drosophila.

Developmental genetic analysis has shown that embryos of the parasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis depend more on zygotic gene products to direct axial patterning than do Drosophila embryos. In Drosophila, anterior axial patterning is largely established by bicoid, a rapidly evolving maternal-effect gene, working with hunchback, which is expressed both maternally and zygotically. Here,we focus on a comparative analysis of Nasonia hunchback function and expression. We find that a lesion in Nasonia hunchback is responsible for the severe zygotic headless mutant phenotype, in which most head structures and the thorax are deleted, as are the three most posterior abdominal segments. This defines a major role for zygotic Nasonia hunchback in anterior patterning, more extensive than the functions described for hunchback in Drosophila or Tribolium. Despite the major zygotic role of Nasonia hunchback, we find that it is strongly expressed maternally, as well as zygotically. NasoniaHunchback embryonic expression appears to be generally conserved; however, the mRNA expression differs from that of Drosophila hunchback in the early blastoderm. We also find that the maternal hunchback message decays at an earlier developmental stage in Nasonia than in Drosophila, which could reduce the relative influence of maternal products in Nasonia embryos. Finally, we extend the comparisons of Nasonia and Drosophila hunchback mutant phenotypes, and propose that the more severe Nasonia hunchback mutant phenotype may be a consequence of differences in functionally overlapping regulatory circuitry.

The homeotic proboscipedia (pb) locus of the Antennapedia Complex (ANT-C) directs the differentiation of adult labial and maxillary structures. Loss-of-function pb alleles show a transformation of adult mouth parts to legs and affect maxillary palp morphology. We have identified the pb transcription unit by inducing and analyzing a series of pb null chromosomal breakpoints. In addition, we describe a variegating pb phenotype associated with two rearrangement breakpoints. Having identified the pb locus, we describe the expression of its RNA and protein products. Unlike the other homeotic genes of the ANT-C, pb has no obvious role in embryonic development. Nevertheless, pb protein is detected during embryogenesis in nuclei of the labial and maxillary lobes and in part of the mandibular segment. In this respect, pb expression parallels the early segment-specific expression of neighboring, embryonically essential homeotic genes. Accumulation of pb protein is also detected in mesodermal cells and in a unique subset of nuclei throughout the central nervous system. We also describe a transcription unit very close to pfc, which is expressed dorsally during embryogenesis in a pattern resembling that of the nearby zygotic lethal zerkniillt (zen) locus. This transcription unit has been shown to contain a homeo box and has been designated z2. Surprisingly, we find that individuals deleted for both the pb and z2 transcription units survive to adulthood and produce normal larval cuticular structures. Thus, pb and z2 show similarities to neighboring ANT-C genes in their expression patterns, yet these similarities are not manifested in comparable loss-of-function embryonic phenotypes.

The labial (lab) gene of Drosophila melanogaster is necessary for the proper development of the embryonic (larval) and adult head. We have identified the lab transcription unit within the proximal portion of the Antennapedia Complex (ANT-C) by mapping the molecular lesions associated with chromosomally rearranged lab alleles. We present its molecular structure, nucleotide sequence, and temporal pattern of expression. In addition, using antibodies generated against a fusion protein, we show that in the embryo the lab protein is distributed in neural and epidermal cells of the procephalic lobe; in a discrete loop of the midgut; and in specific progenitor sensory cells of the clypeolabrum, thoracic segments, and tail region. The regions of lab expression in the developing cephalon represent nonsegmented domains that are anterior to and largely nonoverlapping with the domains of expression of the Deformed (Dfd) and proboscipedia (pb) genes, two other homeotic loci of the ANT-C that also function to direct the development of head structures. Furthermore, lab head expression is associated with the complex cellular movements of head involution, a process that not only is defective in labembryos, but the failure of which appears to be largely responsible for the defects observed in mutant embryos.Finally, we suggest that lab head expression provides a molecular marker for an intercalary segment, an ancestral segment that has become morphologically indistinct during the evolution of the insect head.

The jewel wasp Nasonia vitripennis is considered the "Drosophila melanogaster of the Hymenoptera." This diminutive wasp offers insect geneticists a means for applying haplo-diploid genetics to the analysis of developmental processes. As in bees, haploid males develop from unfertilized eggs, while diploid females develop from fertilized eggs. Nasonia's advantageous combination of haplo-diploid genetics and ease of handling in the laboratory facilitates screening the entire genome for recessive mutations affecting a developmental process of interest. This approach is currently directed toward understanding the evolution of embryonic pattern formation by comparing Nasonia embryogenesis to that of Drosophila. Haplo-diploid genetics also facilitates developing molecular maps and mapping polygenic traits. Moreover, Nasonia embryos are also proving amenable to cell biological analysis. These capabilities are being exploited to understand a variety of behavioral, developmental, and evolutionary processes, ranging from cytoplasmic incompatibility to the evolution of wing morphology.

Mutations of the homeotic gene proboscipedia (pb) of Drosophila cause striking transformations of the adult mouthparts, to legs or antennae. We report here an analysis of the gene structure of pb. Coding sequences across a 34 kb interval yield, by alternative splicing, four identified mRNA forms which differ immediately upstream of the homeobox. As a consequence, the homeodomain is expected to reside in four different contexts in the predicted protein isoforms. Mammalian homologs of pb, human HOX‐2H and murine Hox‐2.8, were identified based on the similarities of their homeodomains (95% identity) and several other conserved motifs. Examination of a collection of pb mutant alleles with antisera directed against the N‐terminal region, the center or the C‐terminal region of the protein showed that, surprisingly, several partial loss‐of‐function pb alleles appear to generate partially functional proteins truncated at their C‐termini. This suggests that a significant portion of the protein contributes quantitatively to pb function, but is partially dispensable. Finally, evolutionary considerations suggest that pb may be one of several ancient genes which preceded the process yielding the modern homeotic gene complexes.

We have screened for zygotic embryonic lethal mutations affecting cuticular morphology in Nasonia vitripennis (Hymenoptera; Chalcidoidea). Our broad goal was to investigate the use of Nasonia for genetically surveying conservation and change in regulatory gene systems, as a means to understand the diversity of developmental strategies that have arisen during the course of evolution. Specifically, we aim to compare anteroposterior patterning gene functions in two long germ band insects, Nasonia and Drosophila. In Nasonia, unfertilized eggs develop as haploid males while fertilized eggs develop as diploid females, so the entire genome can be screened for recessive zygotic mutations by examining the progeny of F1 females. We describe 74 of >100 lines with embryonic cuticular mutant phenotypes, including representatives of coordinate, gap, pair-rule, segment polarity, homeotic, and Polycomb group functions, as well as mutants with novel phenotypes not directly comparable to those of known Drosophila genes. We conclude that Nasonia is a tractable experimental organism for comparative developmental genetic study. The mutants isolated here have begun to outline the extent of conservation and change in the genetic programs controlling embryonic patterning in Nasonia and Drosophila.